Learners with difficulties in mathematics often experience persistent challenges in understanding numerical concepts, problem-solving, and applying mathematical reasoning. These difficulties are influenced by cognitive, instructional, emotional, and environmental factors that require intentional, multidimensional support. Drawing on Epstein’s (2001) school–family–community partnership framework, Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler’s (1995–2010) model of parental involvement and Shikwaya’s (2024) findings on supporting learners with mathematical learning difficulties at school and at home, this approach emphasizes inclusive, culturally responsive, and collaborative practices that strengthen learners’ confidence, engagement, and mathematical performance.
Effective support for learners with mathematical learning difficulties begins within the school environment, where teachers play a central role in identifying and addressing diverse learning needs. Differentiated instruction ensures that teaching strategies accommodate varying abilities through the use of manipulatives, visual aids, and real-life examples that make abstract concepts concrete. Approaches such as the Concrete–Representational–Abstract (CRA) model help learners gradually build conceptual understanding. Early identification and continuous assessment further enable teachers to promptly detect learning gaps and adjust instruction accordingly (Epstein, 2001). Additionally, peer tutoring and collaborative learning foster social interaction and shared problem-solving, enhancing both mathematical reasoning and communication skills. For learners with special educational needs, visual tools, tactile materials, and assistive technology, such as number lines, diagrams, and digital learning apps, can provide necessary scaffolding.
Central to these efforts is the establishment of strong teacher–parent partnerships, as emphasized by Epstein’s (2001) model, which encourages open communication, shared responsibility, and parental empowerment through workshops and regular feedback on learner progress. Equally important are home-based strategies that reinforce classroom learning and nurture positive attitudes toward mathematics. Parents influence children’s perceptions of mathematics by creating a supportive and encouraging environment that values effort over perfection (Hill & Tyson, 2009). Everyday activities – such as cooking, shopping, or playing traditional games – can be transformed into informal numeracy lessons, helping children apply mathematical concepts in meaningful contexts. Shikwaya (2024) found that Namibian parents effectively used local materials like stones, bottle caps, and sticks to support mathematical learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Rather than providing direct answers, parents should guide children through questioning that promotes reasoning and independence (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995–2010). Furthermore, reducing mathematics anxiety and fostering a growth mindset can help children view mistakes as learning opportunities. Establishing consistent communication between home and school through WhatsApp groups or home activity logs ensures alignment of learning goals and timely support (Shikwaya, 2024). Together, these school- and home-based strategies form a holistic, inclusive approach to supporting learners with mathematical difficulties.
Instruction should have clear goals, be targeted to the learner’s current level of understanding, and be adjusted as skills develop. Appropriately challenging tasks increase opportunities for success, strengthen self-efficacy, and support continued learning. Each child learns differently, and individualized instruction can help address specific areas of difficulty. Teachers can assess each learner’s unique needs and create tailored lesson plans to target their weaknesses (Fuchs et al., 2021).
New skills and strategies should be taught explicitly through clear explanations, modelling, guided practice, and gradual transfer of responsibility to the learner. However, effective support is not about providing answers too quickly. Instead, teachers should use questions, prompts, and scaffolding to help children explain their thinking, evaluate strategies, and arrive at solutions independently. This approach strengthens both mathematical understanding and problem-solving skills.
Effective instruction promotes understanding of underlying mathematical concepts in addition to learning procedures and facts. Instruction should prioritize the development of conceptual understanding by helping students make sense of mathematical ideas, explain their reasoning, and discover the relationships between concepts. This emphasis is also particularly important because instructional approaches focused on enhancing students’ mathematical understanding have been found to be more effective in reducing mathematics anxiety than interventions targeting emotional regulation alone (Li et al., 2025).
Teachers play a crucial role in fostering mathematical talk by asking open-ended questions, encouraging children to explain their reasoning, and facilitating discussions about different solution strategies. For children with learning difficulties, opportunities to verbalize their thinking can reveal misconceptions, deepen understanding, and build confidence as mathematical thinkers. Therefore, high-quality support should actively promote mathematical discourse as a key tool for developing both mathematical understanding and problem-solving skills.
Manipulatives, such as blocks, counters, and visual aids, help children understand abstract mathematical concepts by providing a hands-on learning experience. Research has shown that manipulatives can improve mathematical understanding and retention (Carbonneau, Marley, & Selig, 2019). However, manipulatives themselves do not automatically lead to qualitative changes in mathematical thinking or skill development. Their effectiveness depends on how they are used: meaningful learning requires carefully designed activities that guide children to connect concrete representations with underlying mathematical concepts and strategies.
Educational technology, including mathematics software and apps, offers interactive and engaging ways for children to practice mathematics skills. Tools like Khan Academy and Mathletics provide personalized learning experiences and immediate feedback (Cheung & Slavin, 2013).
Encouragement and positive reinforcement can motivate children to persist in their efforts and build their confidence in mathematics. Recognizing small achievements and providing praise can help maintain a positive attitude toward learning mathematics (Putwain & Symes, 2018).
Group activities and peer tutoring provide additional support for children with mathematics difficulties. Collaborative learning encourages learners to discuss and solve problems together, fostering a deeper understanding (Roseth, Johnson, & Johnson, 2008).
Parental involvement is crucial in supporting children with mathematics difficulties.
Parents can create a supportive and stress-free environment for learning mathematics at home. This involves setting aside a quiet, dedicated space for homework and study, free from distractions (Moè, Katz, & Alesi, 2021).
Integrating mathematics into everyday activities can make learning more relevant and enjoyable. Parents can involve their children in cooking, shopping, or playing mathematics-related games to reinforce mathematical concepts (Boonen, Kolkman, & Kroesbergen, 2021).
Regular communication with teachers helps parents stay informed about their child’s progress and any areas of difficulty. This collaboration allows for consistency in the support provided at school and at home (Hill & Tyson, 2009).
Parents can encourage a growth mindset by emphasizing effort and perseverance over innate ability. This approach helps children understand that their abilities can improve with practice and hard work (Yeager & Dweck, 2020).
Parents can provide additional resources, such as books, online tutorials, and educational games, to support their child’s learning. These resources offer varied approaches to learning mathematics, catering to different learning styles (Park, 2021).
To conclude, supporting children with mathematics difficulties requires an approach that includes individualized instruction, the use of manipulatives, technology, positive reinforcement, and collaborative learning. Parental involvement is equally important, as it creates a supportive learning environment and reinforces the child’s education outside of school. By working together, educators and parents can help children overcome their challenges in mathematics and build a strong foundation for future success.
Boonen, A. J. H., Kolkman, M. E., & Kroesbergen, E. H. (2021). The relation between teachers’ math talk and children’s math skills in early childhood education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(3), 617-629. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000640
Carbonneau, K. J., Marley, S. C., & Selig, J. P. (2019). Effects of manipulatives on mathematics instruction in prekindergarten through grade 6: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 83(1), 85-124. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319867396
Cheung, A. C. K., & Slavin, R. E. (2013). The effectiveness of educational technology applications for enhancing mathematics achievement in K-12 classrooms: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 9, 88-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2013.01.001
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Compton, D. L., Powell, S. R., Seethaler, P. M., Capizzi, A. M., & Fletcher, J. M. (2021). First-grade cognitive predictors of third-grade calculation versus word-reading fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(5), 923-937. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000711
Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 740-763. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015362
Li, Q., Huang, K., Hu, Y., Ying, S., Chen, N., & Palaroan, R. (2025). Perspective chapter: Teacher and classroom influences on mathematics anxiety: A systematic literature review of instruction, teacher support, and classroom structure. In M. Tezer (Ed.), Mathematics – Teaching and learning. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1010940
Moè, A., Katz, I., & Alesi, M. (2021). Scaffolding for motivation by parents and teachers: Effects on math motivation and performance in primary school. International Journal of Educational Research, 109, 101806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2021.101806
Park, Y. (2021). Digital games and learning: Key concepts and categories. Educational Technology Research and Development, 69(4), 1935-1954. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-021-09985-4
Putwain, D. W., & Symes, W. (2018). The perceived value of maths and academic self-efficacy as mediators of the threat-appraisal relationship with maths anxiety: A longitudinal study. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 98(2), 173-191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-018-9816-5
Roseth, C. J., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2008). Promoting early adolescents’ achievement and peer relationships: The effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 223-246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.223
Shikwaya, R. O. (2024). Learning mathematics through parental support during the COVID-19 pandemic: Teaching of junior primary learners in Namibia (Doctoral dissertation, University of the Western Cape). University of the Western Cape Institutional Repository.
Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2020). What can be learned from growth mindset controversies? American Psychologist, 75(9), 1269-1284. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000794
Daucourt, M. C., Haughbrook, R., Luo, Y. L. L., Hart, S. A., & Schatschneider, C. (2021). The home math environment and math achievement: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 147(10), 1040–1067. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000341
Epstein, J. L. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools (2nd ed.). Corwin.
Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 740–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015362
Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., & Sandler, H. M. (1995–2010). Why is parent involvement important? Ohio State University—Family Engagement. https://ohiofamiliesengage.osu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Hover-Dempsy-Sandler-Model.pdf
Mutangira, D. T., et al. (2024). Early grade pupils’ development of mathematics skills: Parental involvement challenges and culturally relevant strategies. Education and Development, 4(2), 55–72. https://acnsci.org/journal/index.php/ed/article/view/721
Phelps, G., Cosso, J., & McNeil, N. (2023). Parents’ math anxiety and children’s mathematics skills: The moderating role of parental involvement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 115(4), 765–783. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000767
