August 2021
Finnish institutions (Niilo Mäki Institute, University of Jyväskylä and University of Helsinki) in collaboration with Sub-Saharan institutions (Archbishop Mihayo University College of Tabora (AMUCTA), Tanzania; Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE), Kenya; University of Namibia (UNAM), Namibia; and University of Zambia (UNZA), Zambia) and education experts have developed the eLearning teacher training programme for literacy learning and teaching in Sub-Saharan Africa (eTALE). One of the objectives of the programme is to form, train and coordinate a facilitators’/mentors’ programme. To achieve this objective, AMUCTA—as a collaborator in this programme—has developed a Training Manual for Facilitators of the Adult Literacy Programme.
The aim of this Training Manual is to offer facilitators of adult literacy learning the necessary approaches, methods and techniques for organising literacy programmes and to involve adult learners in the actual planning, implementation and evaluation process. The manual is designed to guide facilitators through the training process, supporting them to better understand, design, organise, conduct and evaluate adult literacy learning. The training can be adopted to cater to various audiences, including representatives of national, regional and local governmental institutions, civil society organisations and non-governmental organisations.
This Training Manual has five units, as follows:
Unit One: Overview of adult education
Unit Two: Adult learning context
Unit Three: Integrating the REFLECT approach with other socio-economic activities
Unit Four: Methods of teaching literacy to adults
Unit Five: Monitoring and evaluating adult literacy programmes.
Each unit is divided into several topics, starting with an explanation of the purpose of the unit and an
outline of the topic, which is laid out in the following way:
a. Introduction
b. Objectives
c. Time
d. Necessary teaching and learning aids
e. Procedure and main points to be learned
f. Assessment
g. Follow-up activities
Basic definitions
i. Literacy—means the ability to read and write (and use numeracy). It involves the ability to identify,
understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed and written materials associated
with varying contexts.
ii. Learning—denotes the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, behaviours, skills, values,
attitudes and preferences. Accordingly, facilitators will have an opportunity to acquire and develop the
knowledge and skills of training adult learners in literacy.
iii. Training—means preparing people for work within a system by enabling them to acquire the
knowledge, methods, skills and attitudes they need for doing the work. The kind of training they need
depends on several factors, including:
• The educational, social and occupational background of the trainee.
• The work they do or are likely to do.
• The methods to be used while doing the work.
• The opportunities and facilities available for training.
• Motivation to learn.
• Resources available to support learning.
iv. Adult education is generally viewed as the entire body of ongoing learning processes whereby people
categorised as adults by the society to which they belong develop their abilities, enrich their
knowledge, and improve their technical or professional qualifications or enable them to take a new
direction to meet their own needs and those of society. Researches show that literate adults are able to
transform their lives, leading to better health, higher income, and fuller social and political
participation.
v. Facilitating—means guiding the learning process. This also includes accepting and passing on new
knowledge and skills.
vi. Facilitators—a person who passes on literacy skills and knowledge to adult learners. It is usual to ensure facilitators have a background suitable both for the training and the work. Therefore, when recruiting facilitators for the adult literacy programme, it is important to consider the following:
● Their educational background (both their level of education and the subject areas);
● their competence in the language to be used;
● how well they are likely to fit in the community;
● their interest in the adult literacy programme;
● their integrity; and
● their concern for developing their community through adult learning.
The training of facilitators for adult literacy learning is conducted through workshops and seminars. During the training, a facilitator can use materials (such as audio and video clips, cards, graphics (maps, matrices, and calendars). Furthermore, various methods can be applied, including field visits, class discussion, group discussion, jigsaw technique, gallery walks, training officer visits and experts in other programmes who can develop and enrich adults’ capabilities for living and working, both intheir own interests and those of their communities and societies.
The following are the aims and objectives of this training programme:
Aims
The aims of the training given to facilitators of the adult literacy programme are:
a. To enable facilitators to understand adult literacy learning in the Tanzanian context; and
b. To develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for the implementation of the adult literacy learning programme.
Objectives
By the end of the training, participants should be able to:
a. Develop knowledge of the broad range of the provision of adult education;
b. Describe the context and characteristics of adult learners and how important these characteristics are in facilitating adult literacy learning.
c. Apply the REFLECT approach in training literacy to adults, based on their local environment;
d. Use appropriate methods and techniques in facilitating adult literacy learning;
e. Monitor and evaluate adult literacy programmes.
a. Introduction
Facilitators who are expected to train adults need the right kind of ‘climate’ to acquire the relevant knowledge and skills for teaching adults. It is therefore the responsibility of a trainer to develop such a climate for the facilitators before training begins. This will enhance adults’ willingness to learn, challenge their existing opinions on how to train adult learners, and encourage them to share their thoughts and feelings.
b. Objectives
● To get to know each other.
● To establish training expectations.
● To discuss and analyse the training components.
● To evaluate their teaching experience and identify areas where they would like to learn more about adult literacy.
c. Time: 2 hrs
d. Learning teaching aids: KWL assessment tool (K-Know: What I Know; W-Want to Know: What I want to know; L-Learned: What I have Learned), self-evaluation tool, setting my goals tool.
e. Procedure and Learning points:
● Activity 1: Guiding questions and activities [15 min]:
Who are we and why are we here? Getting to know each other
o Organize the participants to sit in groups of 4–5. Ask each participant in turn to state their name and share at least one norm they would like to see observed during the training.
o As they state the norms, they should also write these down on a flipchart and later display them on a wall or board.
o After each person in the group has introduced their names, see if the participants can remember the names of the people seated next to them.
o Encourage the participants that by the end of the training, they should be able to know each other’s name.
o Use this time as a class action for brainstorming other logistical issues that will need to be addressed, such as a session chairperson/leader, timekeeper, note takers, daily summary groups, etc.
● Activity 2: Participant expectations from the training [15 min]
How do we manage the training process together?
o Hand out a piece of paper or card and ask the participants to answer the question ‘What do you expect to get out of the training?’
o Divide the participants into groups and have each participant post their response or write it on a flipchart. In groups, have them categorise the list of expectations to come up with similar themes (at least three expectations and five goals they want to achieve at the end of the training).
o Bring all the groups together and compare the expectations and goals with the aims and objectives of the training.
o Discuss the list of expectations and what you intend to cover. Note any important addition you may need to cover and plan for it. Note those expectations that are beyond the training objectives and discuss these.
● Activity 3: Storytelling-sharing their experience [40 min]
What experience do you have about training adults in literacy learning?
o Ask the participants to share their experience in adult literacy learning (story telling).
o Ask them to fill in the self-evaluation form.
o Make sure to explain that this is not a test but a way of helping both the facilitator and the participants to better plan for the training as well as help the trainee monitor their learning.
o Collect the forms, making sure that the participants have filled in all sections.
● Activity 4: Training self-evaluation [30 min]
To what extent do you know about adult literacy learning and training?
o Brainstorm with the trainees what they know or think they know about adult literacy learning.
o Let everyone write down one or a couple of things they know and discuss these as a whole class.
o Probe the participants to give any evidence they have (if any); this could be stories or previous training experiences, for example.
o Encourage everyone to give their opinions.
o Ask the participants to come up with questions or views of what they want to know or learn about adult literacy learning. This could include questions they still have on adult literacy learning or things they have heard and are not sure about and want to confirm, for example.
o Review both (K) and (W) as a class in relation to the objectives of what is to be covered and the trainees’ experiences in relation to adult learning.
o The (L) will not be completed at this time, so explain to the class what the L stands for and that the L section will be filled in later.
● Activity 5: Introducing the KWL tool [10 min]
What do you want to achieve at the end of this training? In this stage, the participants take a few minutes to reflect on the whole session.
o Using the handout, help the participants to write down not just what they hope to achieve at the end of the training but also what their role will be.
o Remind the participants to be as practical and real as possible.
o At the end of the session, the facilitator should schedule time to meet with the participants to discuss their goals and plans.
f. Assessment: [10 min]
Find out how much the participants already know and see if there are ways to reinforce their learning experiences.
Purpose: The purpose of this unit is to enable adult literacy facilitators to understand the broad range of adult education provision.
a. Introduction
Almost everyone agrees that adult education is part of the human right to education, something that imposes certain obligations upon governments and society to ensure that everyone can attain this right. However, not every society view and defines adult education in the same way.
This topic covers:
o The different views and understanding of adult education from different global regions;
o Types of provision of adult education in different societies.
b. Objectives
By the end of this topic, the participants should be able to:
o Explain the different views of adult education according to different regions (Europe, Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, etc.)
o Explain at least five types of adult education provided globally.
c. Time: 2 hrs
d. Learning/teaching materials: List of types of adult education on a flip chart, marker pens,
masking tape, and a hand-out on types of adult education.
e. Procedure and learning points [20 mins]
Ask the participants to state what they know about the separate concepts ‘adult’ and ‘education’. Allow a buzz group discussion and then summarise participants’ ideas.
Learning points:
The meaning of adult education: Adult education is generally viewed as the entire body of ongoing learning processes whereby people regarded as adults by the society to which they belong develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge, and improve their technical or professional qualifications, sometimes in a new direction to meet their own needs and those of their society. Experiences show that literate adults are able to transform their lives, leading to better health, income, and fuller social and political participation.
The entire organised educational process: Adult education can be offered as a prolonged process, initially in schools, and subsequently in colleges and universities, as well as through apprenticeship. The persons attending the practices are those regarded as adults by the society to which they belong. The aim of such practices should be to enrich knowledge and improve technical and professional qualifications to bring about changes in attitudes and behaviour.
An integral part of life-long education and learning: Adult education requires the restructuring of the existing education system to develop the entire educational potential outside the education system. In such a scheme, people are the agents of their own education through the continual interaction between their thoughts and actions. This means education and learning should not be limited to a period of attendance at school, but rather should extend throughout life. This type of education and learning
should also include all skills and branches of knowledge for full personal development.
A global understanding of adult education indicates regional differences in terms of provision, purpose and content. While basic education (mainly through adult literacy programmes) is the principal form of provision in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Arab States and much of Latin America and the Caribbean, vocational and work-related educational activities tend to dominate in Asia and Europe.
Lecture: [30 min] Explain at least five types of adult education
Learning points: The five main types of adult education are: Basic education/general competencies (i.e. literacy); Vocational (technical, income-related); Life skills, post-literacy, health issues; Knowledge generation, innovation (ICT, second languages); and Human rights education and civic education.
Basic education/ general competencies (i.e. literacy):
This type of adult education is provided in countries where the majority of the population is without basic reading and writing skills. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa, the different methods used to deliver adult education include:
● Reading and writing campaigns with strong political backing, usually centrally controlled;
● Functional literacy programmes that typically seek to link literacy with livelihood or skills training;
● Basic education, equivalence programmes and/or formal primary school;
● Innovative participatory programmes provided by NGOs (for example, Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering Community Techniques [REFLECT]);
● Family literacy programmes that provide parent-child or inter-generational literacy support.
Vocational (technical, income-related)
Due to fast-changing demands for different competences, it has been determined logical to provide vocational education and training, income-generating-related education programmes and other workrelated learning opportunities to adults.
Life skills, post-literacy, health issues:
This type of adult education is provided to improve life skills to enable people to deal well and effectively with the challenges of life, for example with health issues, self-awareness, decision making, problem solving, creativity, communication and interpersonal skills.
● It enables adults to cope with their increasingly complex environments.
● Post-literacy is a continuation of basic literacy for the retention and stabilisation of literacy skills acquired by recently illiterate adults. It aims to solidify literacy education by providing resources and media aimed at preventing the relapse of neo-literates into illiteracy so that they can fulfil their future needs and aspirations.
● Continuing education occurs beyond basic and post-literacy.
● This is a lifelong process of learning to facilitate human resource development that will ultimately enable people to achieve a better quality of life.
Knowledge generation, innovation (ICT, second languages)
The introduction of new ICT has led to an endless generation of information and knowledge that people need to use in their daily lives to respond to pressing needs in the current technological development.
Human rights education, civic education
● Adults are given educational programmes and activities that focus on promoting human dignity and equality in conjunction with programmes such as those promoting intercultural learning, participation and empowerment of minority communities.
● Civic education promotes understanding of the ideals of democracy.
● Civic education generates a reasonable commitment to the values and principles of democracy in a country.
Plenary session [30 min]: Divide the participants into groups of 4–5 and ask them to discuss the type of adult education they think should be adopted for an adult literacy programme in one Sub-Saharan country. They should write their ideas on a flip chart. Guide the participants to realise that basic education should integrate the advantages of the other types of adult education.
Participatory presentation [30 min]: Let each group display their presentation on a wall using masking tape. These will be regarded as academic shops (through gallery walk). Each group appoints one member to explain their group’s ideas while other participants visit their shop. Encourage participants to ask questions about the presentations.
f. Assessment: [10 min]
Participants can be asked to explain in their own words what they consider to be the advantages of adult education in their community.
g. Follow-up
Participants will be given a hand-out on the regional differences in patterns of provision of adult education to read and later discuss the importance of each pattern in relation to the Tanzanian context.
a. Introduction
Tanzania mainland attained its independence in 1961. During the first ten years (1960s to 1970s), the government of Tanzania was committed to development for which education was considered a necessary means of achieving this goal. Indeed, the education of children was given greater emphasis before it was later acknowledged that children’s education was a longer-term investment. Accordingly, adult education was given priority because of its immediate impact on plans for development, and a number of adult education innovations were introduced during this time under the umbrella of mass literacy campaigns.
b. Objectives
By the end of this topic, participants should be able to:
o Explain individual experience/involvement in the provision of adult education in Tanzania
o Identify four (4) main adult education innovations implemented since independence as part of mass literacy campaigns.
c. Time: 2 hrs
d. Learning/teaching materials: Chalkboard, marker pens, flip charts, handout mass literacy campaigns in Tanzania.
e. Procedure and learning points [10 min]
Ask the participants what they understand by literacy campaigns in Tanzania and allow a short discussion on this.
Learning points:
● When Tanzania gained independence, illiteracy among the population was a serious problem, with a literacy rate of just 17%.
● The government and its organisations were the main providers of adult education programmes through mass literacy campaigns.
● The teaching staff involved in adult education included education civil servants and employers, together with volunteer teachers recruited from primary school leavers, working in family farming for a few shillings a month.
Storytelling by participants [30 min]
‘My experience in the practices of adult education in Tanzania.’ Learning points
● The concept of an adult from the Tanzanian perspective
● Participants’ involvement in adult education either as a learner or facilitator
Lecture: [30 min]
Explain the adult education innovations introduced in Tanzania using a short lecture accompanied by
questions and answers.
Learning points: In the Tanzanian context, adult education is concerned with the provision of basic and functional literacy skills, which are reading, writing and doing simple arithmetic (3Rs). Innovations in adult education that have been organised under national literacy campaigns include:
● Functional literacy
Literacy teaching was integrated into the teaching of vocational skills. Different primers were written on cotton, banana, rice, maize, coconut, cashew-nut, tobacco, wheat, cattle keeping, fishing, home economics, and political education.
● Integrated Community Based Adult Education (ICBAE).
ICBAE promotes the full participation of learners in designing and developing the curricula and learning materials to sustain the programme. The focus is ensuring equitable access to quality literacy and post-literacy classes for young people and adults. The ICBAE adopted the REFLECT approach The programme links literacy and basic education to the issues of problem solving and socioeconomic development. Learners are empowered to discuss and analyse key issues in their communities, while the programme assists them in starting mini projects (income-generating activities) that will bring about social and economic change.
● Para-literacy programmes (such as rural libraries, radio education programmes, rural newspapers and mobile cinemas)
These programmes were established to enable learners to sustain their acquired literacy skills of reading, writing and arithmetic and to use the skills and knowledge gained for sustainable socio-economic development. They were supported by a network of rural libraries, education through radio and film and rural newspapers.
The Rural Press included Jielimishe for the Northern Zone, Elimu ni Bahari for the Western Zone, Elimu Haina Mwisho for the Lake Zone, Tujifunze for the Southern Zone, Elimu Yetu for the Central Zone, Nuruin for the Highlands Zone and Jiendeleze for the Eastern Zone.
● Workers’ education
Worker’s education was meant to enhance technical skills, increase knowledge of economic and social affairs and raise political awareness. It involved teaching workers about laws and regulations in the workplace, government machinery and parastatal organisations to encourage participation in decision-making.
Every workplace had a workers’ education officer who was responsible for coordinating workers’ education. Three hours were set aside each week to enable workers to participate in the programme.
Plenary session: [20 min]
In groups of 4–5, ask participants to discuss the implementation of the campaigns in their communities.
Assessment: [30 min]
Participants will explain what they consider to be advantages and disadvantages of the different mass education campaigns in the context of their communities.
f. Follow-up
Ask participants to suggest (individually) the content for one adult education programme to be displayed later on the notice board. Participants will visit the displayed content through gallery walks.
Purpose: The purpose of this unit is to enable adult literacy facilitators to understand appropriate learning time and environment, the characteristics and psychology of adult learners, and the role of facilitators and learners in adult education as well as to acquire skills in managing adult learners during learning sessions.
a. Introduction
It is clear that adult learners have different learning schedules compared to young learners. First, they do not spend all day learning because they have other obligations; furthermore, their learning environment is not the same as that of children.
This topic covers:
● Appropriate learning time for adult learning
● Appropriate learning environment for adult learning
b. Objectives
By the end of this topic, participants should be able to:
● Identify appropriate learning time for adult learning
● Describe appropriate learning environment for adult learning
c. Time: 55 mins
d. Learning/teaching materials: Flip charts, marker pens, masking tape, and a hand-out on
appropriate learning time and environment for adult learning.
e. Procedure and learning points
Discussion [15 min] Allow participants to sit in groups of equal numbers to discuss the appropriate learning time and environment for adult learning. Guide them to write a summary of their discussion.
Summary [20 min] Give one representative from each group the opportunity to present a summary of their discussion. Lead general classroom discussion on the issues presented.
Lecture [10 min] Explain through a lecture the appropriate time and learning environment for adult learning.
Learning points:
f. Assessment [10 min]
Participants can be asked to give addition points apart from those that were given by the facilitator.
g. Follow-up
Participants will be given a hand-out on the appropriate time and environment for adult learning.
2.2 Characteristics and Psychology of Adult Learners
a. Introduction
It should be noted that adult learners have different characteristics from those of young learners. Their age makes them behave in a different and particular manner, something that requires special skills to manage the requirements of the learning situation.
This topic covers:
● Characteristics of adult learners
● Psychology of adult learners
● Relationship between characteristics and psychology of adult learners
b. Objectives
By the end of this topic, participants should be able to:
● Identify characteristics of adult learners
● Analyse the psychology of adult learners
● Describe the relationship between characteristics and psychology of adult learners
c. Time: 2 hrs
d. Learning/teaching materials: Flip charts, marker pens, masking tape, and a hand-out on characteristics and psychology of adult learners and their relationship.
e. Procedure and learning points
Discussion [30 min]: Allow participants to sit in groups of 4–5 and discuss the characteristics and psychology of adult learners as well as the relationship between them.
Summary [60 min]: Give one representative from each group the opportunity to present a summary of their discussion. Lead general classroom discussion on the issues presented.
Lecture [20 min]: Explain through a lecture the characteristics and psychology of adult learners and the relationship between them.
Learning points:
f. Assessment [10 min]:
Participants can be asked to give additional clarifications on the topic under discussion.
g. Follow-up
Participants are given a hand-out on the characteristics and psychology of adult learners as well as the relationship between them.
2.3 Characteristics and role of facilitators of adult education
a. Introduction
Facilitators who support adult learners need special skills to enable them to manage the group. Thus, their role mostly differs from that of facilitators who work with young learners.
This topic covers:
● Characteristics of facilitators in adult learning
● Roles of facilitators in adult learning
b. Objectives
By the end of this topic, participants should be able to:
● Describe the characteristics of facilitators in adult learning
● Describe roles of facilitators in adult learning
c. Time: 2 hrs
d. Learning/teaching materials: Flip charts, marker pens, masking tape, and a hand-out on
characteristics and role of facilitators of adult education
e. Procedure and learning points:
Discussion [30 min]: Allow participants to sit in groups of equal numbers and discuss the characteristics and role of facilitators of adult education.
Summary [60 min]: Give one representative from each group the opportunity to present a summary of their discussion. Lead general classroom discussion on the issues presented issues.
Lecture [20 min]: Explain through a lecture the characteristics and roles of facilitators in adult learning.
Learning points:
1. Characteristics of facilitator in adult learning
Tough (1979) identifies four characteristics of a good facilitator:
o They should be warm, loving, caring, and accepting of the learners.
o They need to have a high regard for learners’ self-planning competencies and do not wish to trespass on these.
o They should view themselves as participating in a dialog between equals with learners.
o They need to be open to change and new experiences and seek to learn from their helping activities.
2. Roles of facilitators in adult learning
Pratt (1981) developed five broad clusters of desirable teaching characteristics for those involved in adult education:
o Developing adult-to-adult working relationships
o Developing understanding of and responsibility for instruction
o Dealing with closure and ending; in other words, summarising learning accomplishments and indicating future learning
o Establishing role clarity and credibility
o Guarding the contract; in other words, keeping instruction within agreed boundaries.
f. Assessment [10 min]: Participants can be asked to give addition points to the lecture given by the facilitator.
g. Follow-up
Participants will be given a hand-out on the characteristics and roles of facilitators in adult learning.
2.4 Working with adult learners during learning sessions
a. Introduction
Facilitators who engage with adult learners need special skills to work with adult learners with different characteristics. Through this topic, participants will be taken through important skills needed in working with adult learners.
This topic covers:
● Strategies for managing adult learners during learning
● How these strategies can be used when working with adult learners during learning
b. Objectives
By the end of this topic, participants should be able to:
● Identify appropriate strategies for working with adult learners during learning
● Show how these strategies can be used with adult learners during learning.
c. Time: 2 hrs
d. Learning/teaching materials: Flip charts, marker pens, masking tape, and a hand-out on handling adult learners during learning sessions.
e. Procedure and learning points
Discussion [30 min]: Allow participants to sit in groups of equal number and discuss the strategies for working with adult learners during learning sessions.
Summary [60 min]: Give one representative from each group an opportunity to present a summary of their discussion. Lead general classroom discussion on the issues presented.
Lecture [20 min]: Explain through a lecture the strategies for working with adult learners during learning sessions.
Learning points:
Strategies for working with adult learners during learning:
f. Assessment [10 min]:
Participants can be asked to give additional points to the lecture given by the facilitator.
g. Follow-up:
Participants will be given a hand-out on the strategies for working with adult learners during the
learning session.
Purpose: The purpose of this unit is to enable adult literacy facilitators to effectively apply the REFLECT approach in training literacy to adults, based on their local environment.
3.1 Concept of the REFLECT approach
a. Introduction
REFLECT is an approach toward literacy learning for adults that is not common to every person across the world. However, it has been used in different areas with different groups of adults. This topic covers:
● The meaning of REFLECT
● The origin and development of REFLECT as an approach to adult literacy is discussed.
b. Objectives
By the end of this topic, participants should be able to:
● Explain the meaning of REFLECT
● Analyse the origin and development of REFLECT as an approach to adult literacy.
c. Time: 1.5 hrs
d. Learning/teaching materials: flip charts, marker pens, masking, hand-out on concept of REFLECT approach.
e. Procedure and learning points
Discussion [15 min]: Using a jigsaw method, guide participants to explain the meaning of the REFLECT approach based on their own understanding and experiences. After the discussion, summarize participants’ ideas.
Learning points: The meaning of REFLECT
REFLECT (Regenerated Freirean Literacy Through Empowering Community Techniques) is an
approach based on concepts from the philosophy of Paulo Freire, which uses the techniques of
Topics covered in this unit
3.1 Concept of REFLECT approach
3.2 Basic principles which guide the operations of REFLECT approach
3.3 Application of REFLECT in training literacy to adult women participatory learning and action (PLA) to share and systematise participants’ knowledge by analysing topics of local concern, and taking individual or collective action were appropriate (Sweetman, 2004).
This approach is based on literacy and social activities through linking literacy activities to the issues of problem-solving and socio-economic development or the activities of local participants. The acquisition of literacy is intended to reinforce the process of analysing issues of concern for the participants of the circle and the plans of action that emerge. Literacy also enhances the discussion of concern of the circle, since the written words give their ideas increased status, and acquiring literacy skills enables adults to communicate their ideas to the wider community and to different levels of power. This iterative approach involves a redefinition of conventional literacy training.
Discussion [15 min]: Through class discussion methods, guide participants to analyse the origin and development of REFLECT as an approach to adult literacy.
Learning points: Origin and development of REFLECT
The REFLECT approach started in October 1993 through field experience by ActionAid in Uganda, Bangladesh, and El Salvador. This was a two-year action research project to explore the possible uses of PRA techniques within adult literacy programmes.
The project was based on the views of Robert Chambers, a key exponent of PRA who argued that PRA owes much to the Freirean idea that poor and exploited people can and should be enabled to analyse their own reality (Narayanaswamy, 2009). The results of the project marked the origin and development of the REFLECT approach. First piloted in Uganda, El Salvador and Bangladesh, the Ugandan pilot (in Bundibugyo) was conducted in a multilingual area where neither of the two main local languages had previously been written. In Bangladesh, the pilot was conducted with women’s savings and credit groups in a conservative Islamic area. In El Salvador, it was conducted to promote community development by Asociación Coordinadora de Comunidades Unidas de Usulután (COMUS), a community-based organisation with the aim of providing technical support from a national literacy organisation (Narayanaswamy, 2009, p. 27).
In 1995, after comparing the three pilot programmes with other literacy programmes using traditional
methods in each country, significant results were identified. It was noted that the REFLECT approach can be effective for teaching people literacy by linking training to social and economic development activities of the participants. To date, REFLECT has been used and adapted in 25 countries by 90 organisations, with gender equity being the priority and the pillar for participating circles worldwide. The REFLECT approach involves rural people examining their own problems, setting their own goals, and monitoring their own achievements. By using PRA, the local people conduct their own analysis and often plan and take action, while outsiders perform the role of facilitators (Narayanaswamy, 2009,
p. 18).
Plenary [15 min]: Using the jigsaw method with four groups, ask participants to discuss different projects and activities that have applied the techniques of REFLECT in their areas.
Summary [30 min]: Guide each group to appoint one member to present group ideas, while other participants listen and later give comments, ask questions, or even give additional points for improvement.
f. Assessment [5 min]
Participants analyse the development of the REFLECT approach in Tanzania through different projects and community-based activities with which they have been involved.
g. Follow-up
Participants are given a hand-out on the meaning, origin and development of the REFLECT approach to adult literacy.
3.2 Basic principles guiding the operation of the REFLECT approach
a. Introduction
The REFLECT approach (like any other system) is based on a number of principles that underpin the process of adult literacy training (Sweetman, 2004). These principles lay the foundations for effective achievement of the intended goals of the project, as they explain the ‘do’s and don’ts’ as well as participation among the participants from different contexts.
b. Objective
By the end of this topic, participants should be able to analyse the basic principles of the REFLECT approach that underpin the process of adult literacy training.
c. Time: 1 hr
d. Learning/teaching materials: flip charts, marker pens, masking, PowerPoint presentations.
e. Procedure and learning points
Discussion [15 min]: Guide participants in four groups to identify and explain the basic principles of the REFLECT approach that underpin the process of adult literacy training. In the discussions,
participants may borrow ideas of principles from any training in which they have participated.
Learning points:
The REFLECT approach is based on a number of principles that underpin the process of adult literacy training (Sweetman, 2004). Some basic principles of the REFLECT approach are:
✔ Gender equity is integral to all aspects of REFLECT, as it is essential for social transformation.
✔ REFLECTS recognises the social stratifications and power relationships that affect everyone involved in the process and seeks to create a space and process in which they can become the focus for critical analysis.
✔ Conflict is a reality in people’s lives and should be addressed constructively within the REFLECT process, not suppressed or avoided.
✔ REFLECT recognises that individual transformation is as important as collective transformation.
✔ REFLECT recognises that the equitable practice of power at all levels in the process is essential for determining empowerment outcomes. Institutional and individual changes at all levels are an integral part of the process.
Group work [30 min]: Guide each group to get one member (who has not yet presented) to present group ideas while other participants listen and later give comments, ask questions, or even give additional points for improvement.
f. Assessment [15 min]:
Participants assess the application of these basic principles based on the real environment of Tanzania and the nature of learners they are going to be involved with (adult women) in Tanzania.
g. Follow-up
Participants are asked individually to prepare the adapted principles of REFLECT based on the real contexts of Tanzania and adult women in Tabora. These adapted versions may be displayed through gallery walks.
3.3 Application of REFLECT in literacy training with adult women
a. Introduction
The REFLECT approach is mainly applied on literacy through linking literacy activities to the issues of problem-solving and socio-economic development or activities of local participants. The acquisition of literacy is intended to reinforce a process of analysing issues of concern to the participants of the circle and the plans of action that emerge from this. Literacy also enhances the discussion of concern of the circle, since the written words give their ideas increased status, while acquiring literacy skills enables adults to communicate their ideas to the wider community and offers different levels of power.
b. Objective
By the end of the end of this topic, participants should be able to:
● Analyse the process of the REFLECT approach in teaching literacy to adult women in Tanzania
● Analyse the advantages of the REFLECT approach in teaching literacy to adult women in Tanzania
c. Time: 3 hrs
d. Learning/teaching materials: flip charts, marker pens, ppt presentations, stones, seeds, sticks, samples of different graphics (maps, calendars, matrices).
e. Procedure and learning points.
Instruction [30 min]: Using guided instruction, lead participants to analyse the process/steps of the REFLECT approach in teaching literacy to adult women in Tanzania. Present the ideal steps/process
adapted from the literature.
Learning points:
In applying the REFLECT approach to adult literacy, different steps or processes are involved, as follows: First, in collaboration with participants, select the topic for discussion on that day. The topic should be a significant issue, relevant for the participants at that time. Examples of topics that might be discussed are:
● Housing,
● Crop production,
● Livestock keeping,
● Environmental conservation
● Health and hygiene, and
● Socio-political education
Second, identify an appropriate tool from PRA to pool information and organise ideas. Guide the participants to choose the appropriate tool (such as calendars, maps, or matrices) based on the topic under discussion. The facilitator should use meetings with other facilitators frequently to discuss the selection of both the topic and the tool and share experience of what has worked well.
Third, lead participants to construct the diagram on the ground (using any local materials they feel comfortable with) to represent issues under discussion using the PRA tool. You may invite other
experts, such as extension officers, based on the nature of the topic under discussion. For example, if the topic is about local village government, local government leaders should be invited to spearhead the discussion for a better understanding.
Fourth, determine the codes to represent the local materials used in the graphics or drawings made based on the topic under discussion. For example, you may use sticks to represent roads or paths; stones to represent houses; beans to represent men and maize to represent women.
Fifth, draw pictures on cards and label them in the language known to the participants (you may even use the first tongue of participants). At the end, transfer the whole graphic onto paper and display it to serve as a record of discussion and a basis for literacy. Figures 3&4 present examples of different graphics that may be constructed by the participants using local materials, as follows:
Sixth, guide the participants to select the words that provide a focus for their learning.
Group work [60 min]: Guide participants in groups of four people to choose one topic, construct two graphics on the ground, and then transfer the graphics onto the manila cards.
Display [30 min]: Let the participants display the constructed graphics in the form of gallery walks so that each group can learn from the other groups
Analysis [40 min]: Through questions and answers, analyse at least four advantages of using the REFLECT approach in teaching literacy to adult women in Tanzania.
Learning points: Some advantages of the REFLECT approach to adult literacy learning are as follows:
✔ Learners are empowered to discuss and analyse key issues in their communities, and the programme assists them in starting income-generating activities that will bring about social and economic change.
✔ Through the REFLECT approach, learners address issues of concern in their community.
✔ Participants will learn practically how to plan an income-generating activity to improve their livelihoods based on their interest and the financial and natural resources available.
✔ Participants will have an opportunity to critically examine their environment, identify their problems, discuss and analyse them, and come up with practical solutions for sustainable development.
f. Assessment [20 min]: Participants discuss the challenges that may hamper the application of the REFLECT approach in teaching literacy to adults in Tanzania.
g. Follow-up
Each participant (acting as an adult woman) individually selects the words that they wish to focus the literacy learning on for that day.
Purpose: The aim of this unit is to educate each other, share experiences, discuss together, and come up with joint strategies that are the best for teaching literacy to adults using phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. Participant contributions (specifically on strategies) will be discussed by the team later and if possible incorporated in the training manual for teachers on teaching literacy to adults.
4.1 Sharing experiences of teaching literacy to adults
a. Introduction
Sharing experiences about literacy programmes for adults is essential because this will help teachers to be aware of adult literacy and to learn how their colleagues have effectively facilitated adults in acquiring literacy skills. This topic covers the following sub-topics:
● Sharing experiences through storytelling about teaching literacy to adults
● Applying the REFLECT approach in teaching literacy to adults
b. Objectives
By the end of this topic, participants should be able to:
● understand different ways of teaching literacy to adults
● apply the REFLECT approach when teaching literacy skills to adult learners
c. Time: 3 Hours
d. Teaching and learning materials
A facilitator may use materials such as manila cards, maker pens, flip chart, etc.
e. Learning points and procedures
Introduction/expectations [10 mins]: After writing the topic title, ask participants to mention their learning expectations for this particular unit. This part will be guided by the question: What do you expect to learn from this topic? The facilitator will ask participants to mention their expectations. These expectations will be written on the board, and the whole presentation and discussion will cover the identified expectations.
Discussion [30 mins]: This part includes sharing experiences about strategies for teaching literacy to adult learners and is guided by questions for discussion. Some questions that may be asked include:
● In your groups, discuss steps to follow when you are teaching at word level.
● From your experience, tell us what you might do if you are tasked to teach the reading of syllables.
● What could you do to make sure an adult is able to write the following words: Sahani, Sufuria?
● What could you do to make sure an adult is able to read the following words: Sahani, Sufuria?
● What could you do to make sure an adult is able to read a word?
● What could you do to make sure an adult is able to read and understand a sentence and a paragraph?
Through this discussion, participants will learn the various strategies and techniques for teaching reading and writing to adults from each other’s experiences.
Summary [5 mins]: Sum up and conclusion. The identified learning points from the discussion will be written on the board. Again, participants will be asked to state what they have learnt from the
discussion.
Reflection [30 Mins]: Ask participants to state what they have learned from the shared stories. Participants may just mention teaching methods that they think are suitable for teaching literacy.
Lecture [30 Mins]: Explain through a lecture about applying the RFLECT approach in teaching literacy to adult learners. At this point, the facilitator should make sure they explain all the steps to be followed while teaching vocabularies to volunteer mentors.
Demonstration [20 mins]: Demonstrate before the class how to follow the steps for selecting what to teach adult learners. The facilitator should demonstrate by choosing one or two topics and then selecting vocabularies that are found in particular topics. The aim of this activity is to enable teachers to select and identify various vocabularies found in particular topics.
Reinforcement [10 Mins]: The facilitator may use either a discussion or question-and-answer method to reinforce the learned skills. This session will determine whether the lesson was understood.
Group work [30 Mins]: Ask participants in their groups to select a topic of their choice and then select some vocabularies they think might be taught to adult learners. The aim is to ensure participants
are able to select appropriate vocabularies for teaching literacy. Teachers should discuss and present a list of selected vocabularies to the class.
f. Assessment
g. Follow-up
4.2 Strategies for teaching literacy at the phrase and sentence level
a. Introduction
Teaching literacy should focus on understanding the meaning of phrases and sentences. Reading words alone cannot help adults to understand or obtain the meaning from an extract, sentence, or text. This topic covers:
● Issues to consider while teaching literacy at the phrase and sentence level
● Steps for teaching literacy at phrase and sentence level
b. Objectives
By the end of this topic, participants should be able to:
● Prepare materials for teaching phrases and sentences to adults
● Teach literacy/apply steps for teaching literacy at the phrase and sentence level.
c. Time: 2 hrs 20 mins
d. Teaching and learning materials
Maker pen, manila cards, drawings, flip chart
e. Learning points and procedures
Preparing materials for teaching phrases and sentences to adults
Discussion [20 Mins]: Key issues to consider when preparing a lesson for teaching phrases and sentences will be discussed. The facilitator may ask participants to state some important things that
need to be considered by a facilitator when they plan a lesson.
Summary [10 Mins]: The facilitator sums up through demonstration and should again remind and assist participants in the process of selecting topics and preparing simple sentences from the topic being selected. The facilitator is always advised to start with simple sentences progressing to complex sentences.
Presentation [30 Mins]: Participants should be given topics to prepare materials for teaching phrases and sentences. Then, participants should present their materials to the class. In the presentation, participants should be allowed to discuss and raise comments with the presenters.
f. Assessment: A facilitator may assess presentations and provide comments to the presenters.
Steps for teaching literacy at the phrase and sentence level
Introduction [10 Mins]: Introduce the session by revealing the previous lesson (reading at word level). In this part, participants will be trained how to formulate suitable questions for adults to make
them reflect on the lesson. The facilitator should prepare some questions for reflection and then demonstrate before the class by asking participants themselves the (prepared) questions. It will be
communicated to participants that they should try to follow such a technique as they introduce this particular topic.
Step by step reading [30 Mins]: Participants will be trained on some techniques for teaching the reading of phrases and sentences.
Step one: Sentences will be written on cards. If a sentence or phrase has three words, then three cards will be prepared, and one word found in that sentence will be written on each card. The facilitator should start by showing a card for the first word, followed by showing a card for the second word, and then showing the third card for the last word. As participants read these cards, they will automatically join the words to make a sentence.
Step two: A whole sentence should be written on a manila card or a board, and participants (collectively) may be asked to read them aloud.
Reinforcement skills through reading short texts [30 Mins]: The facilitator can give participants brochures that explain a certain social economic activity and observe them as they read.
4.3 Strategies for teaching literacy at the phrase and sentence level
a. Introduction
Teaching literacy should focus on understanding the meaning of phrases and sentences. Reading words alone cannot help adults to understand or obtain the meaning from an extract, sentence, or text. This topic covers:
● Issues to consider while teaching literacy at the phrase and sentence level
● Steps for teaching literacy at phrase and sentence level
b. Objectives
By the end of this topic, participants should be able to:
● Prepare materials for teaching phrases and sentences to adults
● Teach literacy/apply steps for teaching literacy at the phrase and sentence level
c. Time: 2 hrs 20 mins
d. Teaching and learning materials:
Maker pen, manila cards, drawings, flip chart
e. Learning points and procedures:
Preparing materials for teaching phrases and sentences to adults
Discussion [20 Mins]: Key issues to consider when preparing a lesson for teaching phrases and sentences will be discussed. The facilitator may ask participants to state some important things that need to be considered by a facilitator when they plan a lesson. Summary [10 Mins]: The facilitator sums up through demonstration and should again remind and assist participants in the process of selecting topics and preparing simple sentences from the topic being selected. The facilitator is always advised to start with simple sentences progressing to complex sentences.
Presentation [30 Mins]: Participants should be given topics to prepare materials for teaching phrases and sentences. Then, participants should present their materials to the class. In the presentation, participants should be allowed to discuss and raise comments with the presenters.
f. Assessment: A facilitator may assess presentations and provide comments to the presenters. Steps for teaching literacy at the phrase and sentence level.
Introduction [10 Mins]: Introduce the session by revealing the previous lesson (reading at word level). In this part, participants will be trained how to formulate suitable questions for adults to make
them reflect on the lesson. The facilitator should prepare some questions for reflection and then demonstrate before the class by asking participants themselves the (prepared) questions. It will be
communicated to participants that they should try to follow such a technique as they introduce this particular topic.
Step by step reading [30 Mins]: Participants will be trained on some techniques for teaching the reading of phrases and sentences.
Step one: Sentences will be written on cards. If a sentence or phrase has three words, then three cards will be prepared, and one word found in that sentence will be written on each card. The facilitator should start by showing a card for the first word, followed by showing a card for the second word, and
then showing the third card for the last word. As participants read these cards, they will automatically join the words to make a sentence.
Step two: A whole sentence should be written on a manila card or a board, and participants (collectively) may be asked to read them aloud. Reinforcement skills through reading short texts [30 Mins]: The facilitator can give participants brochures that explain a certain social economic activity and observe them as they read.
Purpose: The intention of this unit is to enable adult literacy facilitators to attain the necessary knowledge and skills for monitoring and evaluating adult literacy programmes. The unit also equips trainees with the skills necessary for collecting and using information in adult literacy programmes.
5.1 Introduction to monitoring and evaluation
a. Introduction
This section is intended to enable participants to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills that they can use to facilitate other key actors in adult literacy learning to monitor and evaluate adult literacy programmes.
b. Objectives
By the end of the session, the participants should be able to:
● Explain the meaning of monitoring and evaluation
● State the reasons for monitoring and evaluation
● Demonstrate monitoring and evaluation skills
● Develop models of evaluation
● Evaluate adult literacy learning
c. Time: 1 hr 10 min
d. Learning/teaching materials: flipcharts, cards, markers, masking tape, blackboard and chalk/white board and white board markers.
e. Procedure and Learning Points:
Step 1: Brainstorming session [25 min]
Using buzz group discussion, ask participants to write down what they understand by the terms monitoring and evaluation.
Participants’ responses are presented and discussed by the class as a group. The facilitator introduces their input, which is compared with participants’ responses. Key ideas are emphasised through class discussion. Possible responses:
Monitoring: Continuous follow-up of the progress of a piece of work, programme or learning.
Evaluation: irregular assessment of the impact of a project, programme or any other kind of learning, whereby a review is conducted in relation to the set objectives.
Step 2: Group work [25 min]
Participants form groups of 4–5, and the trainer assigns them the following questions:
a) What are the reasons for the different types of monitoring?
b) What are the reasons for the different types of evaluation?
Participants’ responses are placed on a flipchart, cards, or blackboard, followed by discussion. The trainer’s input is compared with participants’ presentations.
a. Possible reasons for monitoring include:
● To establish a trend of performance in work, a programme or learning.
● To determine how resources are being utilised.
● To collect information useful for implementation and decision-making of a work, programme, activity or learning.
● To take corrective measures early enough (intervention) to minimise possible challenges.
● To share and gain experiences on the improvements of a programme, activity or learning.
● To check on the relevance of a programme, activity or learning.
b. Possible reasons for evaluation include:
● To determine the consequence or outcome of a programme, activity or learning.
● To determine the efficiency and effectiveness of a programme, activity or learning.
● To determine the extent to which the set objectives are being met.
● To assess the relevance of a programme, activity or learning.
● To make use of the experiences gained.
● To enable innovation to take place.
Summary:
Monitoring and evaluation are key activities in the life of any programme, activity or learning. A continuous check on any activity to determine progress (or lack of progress) is necessary, whereas
periodically an assessment of performance in relation to objectives is important, particularly to determine the impact.
f. Assessment [25 min]:
Ask participants to form groups of 4–5 and point out the importance of monitoring and evaluation to their activities. The groups display their responses on the notice boards/walls for the whole class to read and ask questions.
g. Follow-up (Take home assignment)
Participants are assigned to work out the meaning of the two concepts—monitoring and evaluation — in the context of adult literacy in Tanzania. The assignment can be presented at any time during training.
5.2 Monitoring adult literacy programmes
a. Introduction:
This topic is proposed to enable participants to identify what to monitor and the tools and skills to use during the monitoring of adult literacy programmes.
b. Objectives:
By the end of the session, participants should be able to:
● identify what to monitor in adult literacy programmes.
● identify the tools to use for monitoring adult literacy programmes.
● describe the skills to be used in monitoring adult literacy programmes.
c. Time: 1 hr 30 min
d. Learning/teaching materials: flipcharts, cards, markers, masking tape, or blackboard/white board, chalk/white board markers.
e. Procedure and Learning Points:
Step 1: Role play [15 min]
A District Adult Education Officer is conducting a monitoring exercise in Kalunde village. He moves around the homes, asking questions about adult literacy and ticks off items from a field notebook. (Participants should prepare the items and write them in the field notebook beforehand).
Step 2: Questions about the role play:
a) What was happening in the role-play?
b) What could have gone wrong?
c) How could it have been performed better?
Step 3: Group Work [30 min]
In groups of 4–5, the participants work on the following questions:
a) What issues would you monitor in an adult literacy programme?
b) What tools would you use to carry out such monitoring?
c) What skills would you need to carry out monitoring?
Step 4: Plenary session [30 min]
Groups present their work, which will be discussed and compared with the trainer’s input. Possible responses:
a. What to monitor:
● output
● attendance
● drop-out
● enrolment
● facilitation
● level of participation (e.g. quality of discussions)
● who reads (and how often)
● supply and use of literacy materials
● time taken per literacy activity
● resources to facilitate the learning process
● content and quality of learners’ books/activities
b. Tools to use to monitor adult literacy programme:
● village/community profile
● class registers
● village/community register/record book
● questionnaire
● self-evaluation techniques
● records at health/educational/administrative units
c. Skills to use during monitoring:
✔ Interviewing skills:
● ability to ask clear questions
● ability to link questions
● ability to concentrate during the interview
● ability to repeat what you have heard
✔ Observation skills:
● can tell whether an adult learner is happy or not
● can tell whether some class members are dominating others
✔ Listening skills:
● ability to concentrate
● ability to repeat what you have heard
✔ Recording skills:
● ability to record the facts or main ideas
● ability to operate recording equipment (e.g. tape-recorder)
✔ Analysis skills:
• ability to identify important issues, pointing out differences, advantages, disadvantages
f. Assessment [10 min]:
In groups of 4–5, let the participants discuss and present the following question: Among the issues to monitor, which ones do you think would be relevant for learners and which ones for the facilitator? Each group should present their work and later display the work on the notice boards for the whole class to read through gallery walk.
g. Follow-up:
Work out your own tools that you will use for monitoring an adult literacy programme.
Wrap-up: It is important that the various actors in adult literacy programmes (such as trainers, government officials, community/village leaders and learners) are all involved in the monitoring exercise. Therefore, this requires the setting of issues to monitor (indicators) to be acceptable to each category of actors.
5.3 Evaluating adult literacy programmes
a. Introduction:
This topic attempts to answer questions of ‘What is evaluation in adult literacy programmes?’ and ‘What tools and skills are used?’. After addressing these questions, the participant is expected to evaluate an adult literacy programme.
b. Objectives:
By the end of the session, the participants should be able to:
● Identify which issues to evaluate in an adult literacy programme.
● Identify the tools to be used in evaluating an adult literacy programme.
● Describe the skills to be used in evaluating an adult literacy programme.
● Evaluate adult learning programmes.
c. Time: 1 hr 45 min
d. Learning/teaching materials: flip charts, cards, markers, masking tape, blackboard/white board, chalk/white board markers.
e. Procedure and Learning Points:
Step 1: Facilitator puts up the following drawing for participants to view [20 min]
After viewing for a few minutes, ask participants the following questions to establish whether they all see the same things in the picture.
a) What do you see in the picture?
b) What is happening in the picture?
Possible responses:
a) Three people: two women and a man. The women are farmers, and the man is an extension
worker.
b) The extension worker is gathering information because he is holding a recording book.
c) The farmers are busy digging.
Step 2: Group work [40 min]
In groups of 4–5, participants work on the following tasks:
Suppose you are the extension worker (literacy supervisor) like the one in the picture, evaluating an adult literacy programme.
a) What would you evaluate as learners and as facilitators?
b) What skills would you need in this evaluation?
Step 3: Plenary [30 min]
Groups present their work for discussion. The facilitator then introduces their input for discussion and comparison.
Possible responses:
a. What to evaluate (indicators):
✔ As learners (at the village/community level)
● Number of participants
● Behaviour and attendance of their teacher
● Status of their class, blackboard and shelter
● Availability and status of other learning materials
● Reading and common text in the village/community, e.g. books of their children, primers about
crops/animal keeping/beekeeping etc.
● Ability to keep their business records properly
● Being able to perform more effectively in their respective village/community and family roles
using the literacy skills and knowledge acquired
✔ As facilitators (trainers)
● Name, age, sex, education, occupation/main activity of each participant
● Enrolment and number attending by name, sex (status of participation)
● Reasons for irregular attendance and drop-out
● Learners’ expectations/benefits/anticipations
● Level of skills attainment (3Rs) and other development skills and knowledge (e.g. analytical skills).
● Retention levels
● Effectiveness and efficiency of resources and methods used
b. Skills to be used in evaluation:
● Analytical skills
● Interviewing skills
● Observation skills
● Data collection skills
● Listening skills
Summary:
✔ As facilitators (trainers)
● Name, age, sex, education, occupation/main activity of each participant
● Enrolment and number attending by name, sex (status of participation)
● Reasons for irregular attendance and drop-out
● Learners’ expectations/benefits/anticipations
● Level of skills attainment (3Rs) and other development skills and knowledge (e.g. analytical skills).
● Retention levels
● Effectiveness and efficiency of resources and methods used
b. Skills to be used in evaluation:
● Analytical skills
● Interviewing skills
● Observation skills
● Data collection skills
● Listening skills
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