Direct training on working memory (WM) tasks and practicing certain skills that can impact indirectly on WM (such as physical activity, fantastic play, and inhibition) both produced improvement on WM tasks, with some benefits for near-transfer activities. The common ingredient across effective interventions was the executive-loaded nature of the trained task.

Authors: Anita Rowe, Jill Titterington, Joni Holmes, Lucy Henry, & Laurence Taggart

Source: Rowe, A., Titterington, J., Holmes, J., Henry, L., & Taggart, L. (2019). Interventions targeting working memory in 4-11 year olds within their everyday contexts: A systematic review. Developmental Review, 52, 1-23, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2019.02.001

The aim of this review is to conduct a systematic examination of the effectiveness of non-computerised interventions with 4–11 year olds to identify the following: their effects on working memory (WM); whether benefits extend to near- and far-transfer measures; if improvements are sustained over time; the active ingredients; and the optimum dosage. Both direct training on WM tasks and practicing certain skills that may impact indirectly on WM (such as physical activity, fantastic play, and inhibition) produced improvement on WM tasks, with some benefits for near-transfer activities. The common ingredient across effective interventions was the executive-loaded nature of the trained task.

• Working memory is the ability to hold in mind and mentally manipulate information over short periods in the face of distraction.
• The capacity of WM is limited, it develops more in the first 10 years of life than at any other time, and it reaches adult capacity levels around the age of 14 years.
• Children with poor WM struggle to cope with the heavy WM loads of the classroom, which can result in them failing to complete individual learning activities. Moreover, as problems accumulate, this leads to poor academic achievement.

Effectiveness research of WM training:

• Theoretical perspective: the goal has been to understand the underlying cognitive processes by exploring the extent to which training can improve WM and by identifying variables that moderate or mediate the effects of training and transfer to other cognitive functions.
• Applied perspective: the focus has been on investigating the impact of WM training on outcomes relating to real-world skills (such as attention, language, and academic achievement).

The study

The current review is the first to focus specifically on the effectiveness of non-computerised WM interventions applied within children’s everyday contexts. The aims of the review are to map the types of interventions that have been implemented with young children in everyday contexts and examine the theoretical framework/s used to underpin them.

Research questions:

1. What types of WM interventions are implemented and what is their theoretical underpinning?
2. What are the effects of the interventions on WM and what aspects of WM (if any) are impacted?
3. Do WM improvements (if any) extend to similar untrained WM tasks (near-transfer effects) or dissimilar abilities linked with WM (far-transfer effects)?
4. Are WM improvements durable over time?
5. What are the active ingredients and the optimum dosage of effective interventions?

Eligibility criteria of the studies:

• conducted with children aged 4–11 years
• implemented any intervention that targets WM and is applied within children’s everyday contexts
• employed a randomised controlled, quasi-experimental, or single case experimental design
• included at least one pre- and post-intervention measure of WM

Summary

• The first research objective was to identify both the types of WM interventions implemented and their theoretical underpinnings. The range of intervention approaches included the following: adapting the environment to reduce WM loads; direct WM training without strategy instruction; direct WM training with strategy instruction; and training skills that may indirectly impact on WM. Many of the studies lacked a clear theoretical account of why the intervention should impact WM.
• The second research question was to identify the effects of interventions. A significant outcome of this review is that WM skills can be altered through diverse interventions, particularly in relation to verbal WM skills (which were more frequently measured than the visuospatial domain). Further, it would appear that ELWM skills are more amenable to change compared to STM skills.
• For the third and fourth research questions (identify any near- and far-transfer effects and the durability of WM improvements over time), the evidence was limited because few studies measured these outcomes. Preliminary evidence suggests that certain direct and indirect WM tasks have the potential to produce near-transfer effects on similar WM tasks and far-transfer effects on areas such as reading comprehension, numeracy skills, attention and behaviour.
• The final research question concerned the active ingredients and optimum dosage requirements for WM interventions. The most effective tasks were executive-loaded, meaning they tap into attentional resources under executive control (such as listening recall, odd one out, backward digit recall, verbal and visuospatial dual tasks, and word list updating). Of the indirect WM tasks, cognitively-demanding physical activity, fantastical play, and inhibition training are suggested as being beneficial to ELWM. The optimum dosage required to produce training effects remains uncertain because dosage variables were often unreported or varied significantly across studies. However, relatively short interventions of 5–6 weeks total duration were shown to be effective.

The purpose of this literature review was to examine the characteristics, outcomes, and quality of multicomponent reading interventions for students with intellectual disability (ID). Findings indicate that students with ID who were exposed to multicomponent reading programmes significantly improved their reading skills compared to their peers with ID who received traditional sight word instruction and their previous reading performance.

Authors: Kemal Afacan, Kimber L. Wilkerson, & Andrea L. Ruppar

Source: Afacan, K., Wilkerson, K.L., & Ruppar, A.L. (2018). Multicomponent reading interventions for students with intellectual disability. Remedial and Special Education, 39(4), 229-242. Doi: 10.1177/0741932517702444

Reading instruction for students with ID has traditionally focused on single skill instruction such as sight word reading. The purpose of this literature review was to examine the characteristics, outcomes, and quality of multicomponent reading interventions for students with ID. Findings indicate that students with ID who were exposed to multicomponent reading programmes significantly improved their reading skills compared to their peers with ID who received traditional sight word instruction and their previous reading performance. This literature review highlights effective strategies used to provide multicomponent reading instruction to students with ID.

• Compared to students receiving services in other disability categories and to their peers without disabilities, students with ID usually have less well-developed reading skills.
• Four out of five students with ID do not even achieve minimum levels of proficiency in reading, particularly in the areas of contextualised word recognition, narrative reading comprehension, phonemic awareness, and writing vocabulary.
• Only 9% of students with disabilities and 40% of students without disabilities perform at proficient (or above) levels in Grade 8 reading.
• Results from a meta-analysis (Edmonds et al. 2009) of 13 studies suggested that student comprehension skills significantly improved if they received the following: a) targeted reading instruction in comprehension, b) instruction in word reading strategies, or c) multicomponent reading instruction.
• The term multicomponent refers to a type of instruction that includes at least two of the five components of reading: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.
• Students with ID educated in general education settings outperform students placed in self-contained classrooms in their use of literacy skills, independent living, and social and emotional skills.

The study

The purpose of this review was to examine the characteristics, outcomes, and quality of multicomponent reading interventions for students with ID.

Research questions:

1. What are the characteristics of multicomponent reading interventions for student with ID, and what are the characteristics of the students who have participated in these studies?
2. What teaching strategies have been effective when implementing multicomponent reading interventions for students with ID?
3. What is the overall quality of multicomponent reading intervention studies?

Seven articles met the inclusion criteria, which were then reviewed and coded according to their descriptive characteristics and methodological soundness.

Implications

• Six of the seven studies demonstrated that multicomponent reading interventions were associated with improved reading skills for students with ID.
• Both the duration of interventions and student IQs affected literacy acquisition. If students had a lower IQ level, the multicomponent intervention needed to be delivered over a more extended period of time and with greater intensity.
• Different students may need different amounts of time to respond to multicomponent interventions.
• It is possible to integrate several evidence-based strategies such as direct instruction, time delay, repeated trials, and read aloud into a multicomponent programme.
• Providing phonemic awareness instruction in early grades is vital for the reading development of students with ID because they do not easily develop phonemic awareness skills.
• Research on multicomponent reading instruction should be extended to general education (inclusive) classrooms in which students with ID are taught alongside students without disabilities.

In this review, studies that focused on the implementation of phonics based reading interventions for students with intellectual disability (ID) were examined to determine certain factors, such as what type of settings are typically used and what type of interventions are being implemented. Results indicate that students with ID continue to respond to phonics based reading interventions and there is an increase in published studies involving phonics based reading interventions for students with ID.

Author: David R. Hill

Source: Hill, D.R. (2016). Phonics based reading interventions for students with intellectual disability: A systematic literature review. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 4(5), 205-214. Doi: 10.11114/jets.v4i5.1472

For students with ID, teachers require interventions that are simple and efficient and can be implemented in the classroom. In this review, studies that focused on the implementation of phonics based reading interventions for students with ID were examined to determine the salient factors, such as what types of settings are typically used and what types of intervention are being implemented. Results indicate that students with ID continue to respond to phonics based reading interventions and there has been an increase in published studies involving phonics based reading interventions for students with ID.

• The emphasis and methods of reading instruction for students with ID have changed over the past several years.
• The initial focus was on teaching functional sight words to enhance daily living skills for students with ID.
• The mode of instruction primarily involved drill and practice exercises that only targeted word identification and other isolated reading skills.
• While students have learned to identify words, they have experienced great difficulty in reading connected text.
• Research focusing on phonics based reading interventions for students with ID is increasing. Moreover, the findings from two reviews are encouraging and provide support for the use of phonics based instruction for students with ID.
• Conners (1992) concluded that children with moderate ID respond to various forms of phonics instruction.
• Joseph and Seery (2004) concluded that some students with ID are capable of generalising acquired phonetic analysis skills.

The purpose of this review was to update prior reviews and examine studies that have implemented phonics based reading interventions to students with ID to answer the following questions:

1. With whom and in what types of educational settings has phonics instruction been evaluated?
2. Which approaches to phonics instruction have been examined since the last review?
3. How effective are explored phonics interventions for students with ID?
4. Is there evidence for an increased focus on phonics instruction for students with ID since the previous reviews?

In total, 11 articles met the inclusion criteria and were reviewed. In the included articles, Ns varied from 3 to 93 and the subjects ranged from kindergarten age to 15-year-olds.

Interventions used:

• One intervention targeted concepts of print, phonological and phonemic awareness, oral language, letter knowledge, word recognition, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension.
• An Early Literacy Skills Builder (ELSB) intervention targeted vocabulary, comprehension, phonemic awareness and early phonics skills.
• Corrective Reading Program Decoding A is an established, systematic, explicit reading programme with a focus on decoding skills.
• The synthetic phonics intervention consisted of participants learning individual letter sounds and how to blend them to make words.
• The analogy phonics intervention consisted of participants learning sounds of common consonants and common ‘rimes’ and combining them to read words. Participants were asked to practice reading the words and saying the letter sounds before attempting to match pictures with the sounds/words.
• Simultaneous prompting involves the simultaneous delivery of the controlling prompt and the instructional cue.

Implications

• Reported results from the 11 studies reviewed indicated varying degrees of reading improvements as a result of their respective reading interventions. Further, they provided more evidence supporting the efficacy of phonics based interventions for students with ID.
• All studies used a systematic and explicit approach to instruction.
• Interventions were implemented either one-to-one or in a small groups, with each session lasting an average of 32.5 minutes.
• Further examination of the effects of letter-sound correspondence, letter groups, and syllables on reading instruction with students with ID are encouraged.

In this monograph, 10 learning techniques are discussed in detail and recommendations about their relative utility are offered. The techniques are as follows: elaborative interrogation, self-explanation, summarisation, highlighting (or underlining), keyword mnemonics, imagery use for text learning, rereading, practice testing, distributed practice, and interleaved practice.

Authors: John Dunlosky, Katherine A. Rawson, Elizabeth J. Marsh, Mitchell J. Nathan, & Daniel T. Willingham

Source: Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K.A., Marsh, E.J., Nathan, M.J., & Willingham, D.T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58, DOI: 10.1177/1529100612453266

Many students are being left behind by an educational system that some people believe is in crisis. In this monograph, 10 learning techniques are discussed in detail and recommendations about their relative utility are offered. The techniques are elaborative interrogation, self-explanation, summarisation, highlighting (or underlining), keyword mnemonics, imagery use for text learning, rereading, practice testing, distributed practice, and interleaved practice. To offer recommendations about the relative utility of these techniques, it was evaluated whether their benefits generalise across four categories of variables: learning conditions, student characteristics, materials, and criterion tasks.

• Simple techniques are available that teachers and students can use to improve student learning and achievement. Hence, it is surprising that teachers have not been told about these techniques and many students are not using them.
• Some effective techniques are underutilised because teachers do not learn about them (hence students do not use them). This is despite evidence suggesting that the techniques could benefit student achievement with little added effort.
• Some learning techniques that are popular and often used by students are relatively ineffective.
• Some techniques (such as self-testing and distributed practice) have been chosen for this study because an initial survey of the literature indicated they could improve student success across a wide range of conditions.
• Some techniques (such as rereading and highlighting) were included in the study because students report using them frequently.
• The choices were limited to techniques that could be implemented by students without assistance.
• The review of each learning technique describes how it can be used, its effectiveness for producing long-term retention and comprehension, and its breadth of efficacy across the categories of listed variables (materials, learning conditions, student characteristics, and criterion tasks).

Evaluation of the learning techniques

• Each technique is assessed in terms of its relative utility: low, moderate, or high
• Although a technique could be designated low utility because its effects are limited to a small subset of materials that students need to learn, it could be useful in some cases and adopted in appropriate contexts. However, relative to the other techniques, it would be considered low in utility because of its limited generalisability.
• A technique could receive a low or moderate utility rating if it showed promise but lacked sufficient evidence to support confidence in assigning a higher utility assessment.

Self-explanation

What it is and why it should work?

• The core component of self-explanation involves students explaining an aspect of their processing during learning, such as by asking themselves ‘What does the statement mean?’ or ‘Is there anything I still don’t understand?’.
• Self-explanation can enhance learning by supporting the integration of new information with prior knowledge.

How general are the effects?

• Self-explanation has been found effective when accompanied by either direct instruction or discovery learning.
• Self-explanation effects have been exhibited by with both younger and older learners.
• One of the strengths of self-explanation literature is that effects have been shown across different materials within a task domain and across several different task domains.
• Self-explanation has been shown to support many kinds of logic puzzles and mathematics problems, has helped younger learners to overcome various kinds of misconceptions, and has improved their understanding of false belief, number conservation, and principles of balance.
• Self-explanation appears to be broadly applicable.
• Studies involving text learning have also shown the effects of self-explanation on measures of comprehension.
• Studies have shown self-explanation effects on near-transfer tests, in which students are asked to solve problems that have the same (but not identical) structure as practice problems.
• Self-explanation effects on far-transfer tests have been demonstrated for the solving of mathematics problems and pattern learning.

Issues for implementation

• A particular strength of the self-explanation strategy is its broad applicability across a range of tasks and content domains.
• Most students can profit from self-explanation with minimal training.
• Some students may require more instruction to implement self-explanation successfully. Thus, the benefit of self-explanation might be enhanced by teaching students how to implement the self-explanation technique effectively.
• Self-explanation was rated as having moderate utility.

Highlighting and underlining

What it is and why it should work?

• Highlighting and underlining typically appeal to students because they are simple to use, do not entail training, and do not require students to invest much time beyond that already required for reading the material.
• Reading marked text promotes subsequent memory of the marked material.
• Actively selecting information should benefit memory more than simply reading marked text.
• While marked text draws reader attention, additional processing should be required if the reader has to decide which material is most important. Such decisions require the reader to think about the meaning of the text and how its different pieces relate to each other.
• The quality of the highlighting is probably crucial to whether it helps students to learn.

How general are the effects?

• Prior knowledge might moderate the effectiveness of highlighting.
• Mainly in the studies reviewed, it was determined that highlighting did not improve learning.

Issues for implementation

• Given students’ enthusiasm for highlighting and underlining, discovering fail-proof ways of ensuring this technique is used effectively might be easier than convincing students to abandon it entirely in favour of other techniques.
• Highlighting and underlining is rated to have low utility.
• It can help when students have the knowledge needed to highlight more effectively or when texts are difficult. However, highlighting can actually hurt performance on higher-level tasks that require inference making.

Imagery use for text learning

What it is and why it should work?

• When students read text, they imagine the content of each paragraph using simple and clear mental images.
• Developing images can enhance one’s mental organisation or integration of information in the text. Moreover, idiosyncratic images of particular referents in the text could also enhance learning.
• Using prior knowledge to generate a coherent representation of a narrative may enhance a student’s general understanding of the text.
• The literature review suggests that the effects of using mental imagery to learn from text may be rather limited and not robust.

How general are the effects?

• Imagery has more benefits among students who have listened to texts compared to students who have read them.
• In some studies, students’ spontaneous use of imagery in control conditions was deemed partly responsible for the failure of imagery to benefit performance in some cases. However, this has not been quantified.
• Despite the promise of imagery, the patchwork of inconsistent effects for Grade 4 students has been replicated with students of other ages.
• While Grade 3 students have been shown to benefit from using imagery, younger students do not appear to benefit from attempting to generate mental images when listening to a story.
• Although imagery instructions can boost performance, sometimes they have no effect.
• In general, imagery instructions do not tend to enhance students’ understanding or application of the content of a text.

Issues for implementation

• The majority of studies have examined the influence of imagery by using relatively brief instructions that encouraged students to generate images of text content while studying.
• Imagery can improve students’ learning of text materials and imagery production and is more broadly applicable than keyword mnemonics.
• The benefits of imagery are largely constrained to imagery-friendly materials and memory tests.
• The use of imagery for learning text is rated as low utility.

Practice testing

What it is and why it should work?

• Testing is viewed by many students as an undesirable necessity of education. This is unfortunate because it overshadows the fact that testing also improves learning.
• The century of research on practice testing demonstrates the broad generalisability of the benefits of practice testing.
• Testing can enhance retention by triggering elaborative retrieval processes. Attempting to retrieve target information involves a search of long-term memory that activates related information. Further, this activated information may then be encoded along with the retrieved target, forming an elaborated trace that affords multiple pathways to facilitate subsequent access to that information.
• Practice testing may enhance how well students mentally organise information and how well they process idiosyncratic aspects of individual items. Together, these can support better retention and test performance.

How general are the effects?

• Practice tests can benefit learning even when their format does not match the format of the criterion test.
• Practice tests that require more generative responses (such as recall or short answer) are more effective than practice tests that require less generative responses (such as filling in the blank or recognition).
• Concerning dosage, more is better.
• Concerning time intervals, longer is better.
• Repeated practice testing produces greater benefits when lags between trials within a session are longer rather than shorter, when trials are completed in different practice sessions rather than all in the same session, and when intervals between practice sessions are longer rather than shorter.
• The testing effects have been demonstrated across participants with a wide variety of ages.
• Some form of testing effect has been demonstrated with preschool and kindergarten children, elementary school students, middle school students, high school students, more advanced students, middle-aged learners, and older adults.

Issues for implementation

• Practice testing appears to be relatively reasonable with respect to time demands.
• Practice testing can be implemented with minimal training.
• The advantage of practice testing with feedback over restudy is it is extremely robust.
• The implementation of feedback with practice testing protects against perseveration errors when students respond incorrectly.
• Several studies have reported positive outcomes from administering summative assessments that are shorter and more frequent rather than longer and less frequent. This is true for both learning outcomes and student ratings of factors (such as course satisfaction and preference for more frequent testing).
• Practice testing is rated as having high utility.

Interleaved practice

What it is and why it should work?

• In interleaved practice, students alternate their practice of different types of items or problems. In contrast, blocking practice requires that all content from one subtopic is studied (or all problems of one type are practiced) before the student progresses to the next set of material.
• During practice, performance was better with blocked practice compared to interleaved practice. However, this advantage dramatically reversed on the criterion test.
• One explanation for the impressive effect of interleaved practice is that interleaving gives students practice at identifying which solution method should be used for a given item or problem.
• Interleaved practice helps students to discriminate between the different kinds of problems, meaning they will be more likely to use the correct solution method for each one.

How general are the effects?

• Interleaved practice may further enhance a student’s ability to develop accurate concepts when exemplars of different concepts are presented simultaneously.
• Interleaved practice may only be most beneficial after a certain level of competency has been achieved using blocked practice with an individual concept or problem type.
• The majority of studies on interleaved practice have included college-aged students. Sometimes performance was improved and sometimes there was no effect.
• It seems plausible that motivated students could easily use interleaving without help.

Issues for implementation

• After a given type of problem (or topic) has been introduced, practice should first focus on that particular problem. After the next type of problem is introduced (such as during another lecture or study session), that problem should first be practiced. However, this should be followed by extra practice involving interleaving the current type of problem with others introduced during previous sessions.
• Interleaved practice may take more time to implement compared to blocked practice, because solution times often lengthen during interleaved practice. However, slowing down probably indicates the recruitment of other processes that boost performance.
• Interleaved practice is rated as having moderate utility.
• Interleaved practice has been shown to have a relatively dramatic effect on student learning and the retention of mathematical skills.
• Interleaving helps with other cognitive skills.

Implications

• Beyond training students to use these techniques, teachers could also incorporate some of them into their lesson plans.
  • When beginning a new section of a unit, a teacher could begin with a practice test (with feedback) on the most important ideas from the previous section.
  • When students are practicing problems from a unit on mathematics, recently studied problems could be interleaved with related problems from previous units.
  • Teachers could also harness distributed practice by re-presenting the most important concepts and activities over the course of several classes.
  • When introducing key concepts or facts in class, teachers could engage students in explanatory questioning by prompting them to consider how the information is new to them, how it relates to what they already know, or why it might be true.
  • Even homework assignments could be designed to take advantage of many of these techniques.
• Teachers should be encouraged to train students to use learning techniques more consistently (and explicitly) when they are engaged in pursuing various instructional and learning goals.

Self-regulation is a process whereby people organise and manage their capacities in the service of attaining some desired future state. These capacities comprise their thoughts (such as competency beliefs), emotions (such as interest), behaviour (such as engagement with learning activities), and social-contextual surroundings (such as selecting a quiet, comfortable place to study).

Authors: Johnmarshall Reeve, Richard Ryan, Edward L. Deci, & Hyungshim Jang

Source: Reeve, J., Ryan, R., Deci, E.L., & Jang, H. (2008). Understanding and promoting autonomous self-regulation: A self-determination theory perspective. Chapter 9 in the book Motivation and self-regulated learning. Theory, research, and applications edited by Dale E. Schunk & Barry J. Zimmerman (Routledge, Taylor, & Francis Group).

Self-regulation is a process in which people organise and manage their capacities in the service of attaining some desired future state. These capacities are their thoughts (such as competency beliefs), emotions (such as interest), behaviour (such as engagement with learning activities), and social-contextual surroundings (such as selecting a quiet, comfortable place to study). Theories of self-regulation vary considerably in their specific foci: some focus on the ‘why’ of self-regulation, some on the ‘what’, and some on the ‘how’. When autonomous in their self-regulation, students are self-initiating and persistent because the tasks they undertake are perceived as interesting or personally important to them.

• Self-determination theory (SDT) begins with the assumption that people are active by nature with an evolved tendency to engage with the environment, assimilate new knowledge and skills, and integrate them into a coherent psychological structure.
• There are minitheories within SDT, including cognitive evaluation theory, organismic integration theory, and basic psychological needs theory.
• Cognitive evaluation theory explains how aspects of the social environment affect intrinsic motivation.
• To be intrinsically motivated is to engage in an activity because one finds the activity itself interesting and enjoyable.
• A general tendency for rewards undermines intrinsic motivation, although positive feedback tends to enhance intrinsic motivation. Moreover, tangible rewards can potentially enhance intrinsic motivation when they are used to communicate competence or improvement.
• External factors tend to undermine intrinsic motivation when they convey incompetence or pressure and control people’s behaviour.
• Organismic integration theory investigates the phenomena of internalisation and integration.
• Internalisation refers to the process through which an individual transforms an externally prescribed regulation or value into one that is internally endorsed.
• Integration refers to the experience in which an internalised regulation has been fully and coherently assimilated with one’s sense of self.
• Basic psychological needs theory focuses on the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness as the basis of students’ autonomous self-regulation.

Student-classroom dialectical framework

• According to the SDT framework, all students possess inner motivational resources that can potentially allow them to engage constructively and proactively in learning activities. This is regardless of their starting point, background, or ability.
• Students’ inner resources are psychological needs (such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness, integrated values, interests, and intrinsic goals).
• The classroom learning environment includes the teacher’s motivating style (such as autonomy supportive vs. controlling) and external events. These events can include interesting things to do, opportunities for action, rules and limits, reward and incentives, goals, feedback, rationales, optimal challenges, and evaluations and assessments.
• The student proactively engages in learning opportunities as an expression of the self and out of a desire to interact in the classroom effectively.
• The classroom environment sometimes nurtures and enriches the student’s inner resources, maintaining intrinsic motivation and facilitating internalisation. However, sometimes it can disrupt and thwart these natural processes.

Controlling instructional behaviours

• Uttering directives/commands: voicing commands, such as do this, move that, place it here, turn the page.
• Uttering should, got to, ought to: voicing statements that students should, must, have, got to, or ought to think, feel, or do something that they are not currently thinking, feeling, or doing
• Telling ‘the right way’: verbalising (or announcing) a particular way of behaving before students have the opportunity to discover an effective way of behaving for themselves
• Showing ‘the right way’: explicitly displaying (or exhibiting) a particular way of behaving before students have the opportunity to discover an effective way of behaving for themselves
• Monopolising learning materials: the teacher physically holds, possesses, and monopolises the learning materials
• Controlling questions: communicating directives posed as a question and voiced with the intonation of a question

Classroom research on self-determination theory

• Autonomy-supportive classroom contexts tend to promote autonomous self-regulation by helping students to achieve the following: set their own goals; direct their own behaviour; seek out optimal challenges; pursue their own interests and values; choose their own way of solving a problem; think more flexibly and more actively; persist rather than give up; perform better and more creatively; employ more mature coping strategies; and experience more positive feelings about themselves and their learning.
• When learning tasks were introduced in autonomy-supportive (as opposed to controlling) ways, students achieved more positive learning outcomes.
• Supporting intrinsic motivation means being attuned to students’ autonomy, competence, and intrinsic motivation, and finding ways to enrich learning opportunities to render them more interesting and relevant to students’ lives.

Supporting internalisation, identified regulation, and integrated regulation

• Teachers can provide rationales that explain why their recommended way of thinking or behaving might be personally useful for the students.
• Teachers can use informational rather than pressuring language.
• Teachers can acknowledge students’ negative feelings about undertaking uninteresting or nonvalued endeavours.
• Teachers can display high relatedness to students; hence, they know with confidence that their teacher truly cares about and is looking out for their personal welfare.
• Teachers can suggest ‘interest-enhancing strategies’ to support student engagement during relatively uninteresting lessons. For example, goals can be added, repetitive tasks can be conducted in different ways, and students can work in the company of friends.

When students work independently, monitor task performance, and recognise difficulties they cannot overcome on their own, requesting assistance from a more knowledgeable individual can be an adaptive learning strategy. In this chapter, the academic help-seeking literature is briefly reviewed then contrasted with several types of nonadaptive actions in which students often engage when they encounter academic difficulty. Further, practical concerns of teachers are addressed, particularly on how to support student efforts at adaptive help seeking.

Author: Richard S. Newman

Source: Newman, R.S. (2008). The motivational role of adaptive help seeking in self-regulated learning. Chapter 13 in the book Motivation and self-regulated learning. Theory, research, and applications edited by Dale E. Schunk & Barry J. Zimmerman (Routledge, Taylor, & Francis Group).

An important aspect of the learning process is asking questions about material one does not understand. When students work independently, monitor task performance, and recognise difficulties they cannot overcome on their own, requesting assistance from a more knowledgeable individual can be considered an adaptive learning strategy. In this chapter, academic help-seeking literature is briefly reviewed then contrasted with several types of nonadaptive actions in which students often engage when they encounter academic difficulty. Any practical concerns of teachers, particularly how to support students’ efforts at adaptive help seeking, are also addressed.

• Adaptive help seeking is a strategy of self-regulated learning.
• Adaptive help seeking is a goal-directed and intentional action that mediates the relationship between academic difficulty and successful task completion.
• Adaptive help seeking is social—it involves other people.
• According to Vygotsky (1978), a child’s cognitive development is necessarily linked to social influences. The young child is an active participant in social interactions with adults, who provide needed assistance and gradually wean the child off unneeded assistance. In time, the child adopts the adult’s regulating role.
• This developmental process has been described as a transition from other-regulation to self-regulation.
• Faced with difficult tasks, learners may require assistance from someone more knowledgeable than themselves.
• An important aspect of self-regulation is knowing when it is necessary to fall back to other-regulation.
• Individuals can alternate between depending on others, gradually developing independence, pushing oneself toward self-sufficiency, asking an expert for further assistance, and pushing oneself to new limits when necessary.
• Willingness to depend on others over a lifespan is a marker of cognitive, social, and emotional maturity.

Adaptive help seekers possess the following intrapersonal, affective-motivational, and self-system resources:

1. Goals (such as desire to learn)

2. Self-beliefs (such as self-efficacy and perceived competence)

3. Emotions (such as self-esteem that allows one to admit to others his or her limitations)

Operationalising adaptive help seeking

• Adaptive help seeking is restricted to occasions when assistance is actually required.
• With age and knowledge, students become increasingly aware of when their knowledge is lacking, comprehension is incomplete, or they are confused.
• Help seeking following initial failure can be interpreted as appropriate (or necessary), whereas help seeking following an initial solution that is correct is inappropriate (or unnecessary).
• Some studies about Grade 3 and 5 students found that Grade 3 students tended to make more unnecessary requests for help than Grade 5 students. Further, Grade 5 students with relatively poor vocabulary asked significantly more unnecessary questions compared to classmates with good vocabulary.
• Asking for a hint is indicative or ‘instrumental’ help seeking (indicating a desire to clarify or refine current knowledge), whereas asking for a direct answer is indicative of ‘executive’ help seeking (indicating either a lack of knowledge or desire for expedient task completion).
• Among more experienced learners, there is evidence of adaptiveness being operationalised according to matching specific types of request to perceived needs.
• Older children take more time before requesting help compared to younger children, suggesting more perseverance in the face of difficulty.
• Students with learning goals are more interested in obtaining feedback about the correctness of their work. In contrast, students with performance goals are more likely to seek help in seemingly nonadaptive ways, such as by immediately asking for help when it may not be necessary or failing to ask help when it is necessary.

This chapter focuses on motivation as a consequence of learning to self-regulate, arguing that a facility for learning is a motivator in itself. By engaging in academic pursuits productively, an individual can enjoy being a student and develop confidence about schoolwork. Further, students with good work habits are recognised and given status as full participants in their school community.

Author: Lyn Corno

Source: Corno, L. (2008). Work habits and self-regulated learning: Helping students to find a ‘will’ from a ‘way’. Chapter 8 in a book Motivation and self-regulated learning. Theory, research, and applications edited by Dale E. Schunk & Barry J. Zimmerman (Routledge, Taylor, & Francis Group).

This chapter focuses on motivation as a consequence of learning to self-regulate, arguing that a facility for learning is, in itself, a motivator. Individuals who engage in academic pursuits productively can enjoy being a student and develop confidence about schoolwork. Moreover, students with good work habits are recognised and are considered full participants in their school community. Students tend to carry this sort of recognition throughout their school years.

• Consciously using self-regulation as a tool for undertaking learning tasks increases control and results in other favourable consequences.
• Ongoing use of self-regulation in academic settings increases the likelihood that these processes will be tapped ‘automatically’ as conditions dictate.
• When routinely applying self-regulation to control action on school-related tasks, students begin to develop academic work habits.
• Students can improve in school if they learn to process information more effectively when they confront academic work and develop a strategic approach to learning as second nature.
• Internalising what it means to ‘learn how to learn’ might be used to promote effective academic work habits.
• According to Bandura (1977), strong beliefs in personal capabilities influence motivated behaviour, which includes effort and engagement in school.
• Students who can develop into confident and consistent self-regulated learners should be able to tackle almost any task using that adaptive mindset, even if their personal capabilities are average relative to their peer group.
• Multiple strands of research show that low achievers can learn the strategies of self-regulation and apply them under the demands of school tasks.
• Although motivational processes set the stage for goal pursuits, completing a performance often requires persistent striving and navigation of obstacles that define volition.

What is volition?

• Volition reflects an intention to implement or carry out action.
• Volition includes the post-decisional self-regulation activities of setting and prioritising an action plan and activities concerned with implementation (such as bypassing barriers, checking work, managing resources, and budgeting time).
• If work habits and work styles (such as those reflected in self-discipline) are volition based, then it makes sense for students to hone their volitional competency.
• One way for students to strengthen volitional competency is through repeated experience with monitoring volitional states.

A framework for thinking about work habits

• Good working habits comprise the strategies and tactics for completing academic tasks that become honed through experience.
• Good work habits are cultivated tendencies that contribute to readiness and success in school.
• Students with good work habits receive positive feedback throughout the age ranges.
• Teachers provide ‘hard workers’ with a variety of opportunities to develop and display leadership.
• It is also recommended that self-disciplined students should qualify for other honours available in the school.
• Teachers confer power and status on students, establishing an upward performance trajectory that extends beyond any particular classroom.
• Improved time management allows opportunities for personal pursuits during free time.
• Students who adopt either the teacher or student role in group assignments provide models of work habits to be perceived and emulated by other members of the group.
• Students who find utility in the positive consequences of good group habits (and set goals accordingly) should increase their likelihood of school success in the long term.
• Work habits develop over the two scales of time and experience.
• Accumulated experiences organise and stabilise, reshaping a student’s repertoire of propensities (some of which are work habits).
• Beyond the classroom, academic work habits develop through homework, peer helping, and in other socio-cultural experiences that share properties with school (events that collectively educate and individual’s attention).

How to plan to work?

• Prepare to learn
• Set contingency plans
• Make a schedule
• Consider ways to proceed
• Apply related knowledge
• Set manageable goals

Two ‘bags of tricks’ for doing well in school

In the case of making ideas orderly, the tricks include the following:

• Goal setting
• Marking important points
• Summarising
• Reviewing

In the case of sharing your ideas, the tricks include the following:

• Asking questions
• Talking to learn
• Answering when called on
• Volunteering

The idea is that teacher responds favourably when students offer help in class without being asked. For example

• Offering to help the teacher with a class project
• Asking to be a group leader
• Raising one’s hand to answer questions
• Volunteering to read aloud or offering to work on a problem publicly

In the curriculum, teachers are asked to work together with students and their parents to design targeted home-based learning skills exercises.

Both quantitative and qualitative evidence from a series of studies supported the value of introducing children to class participation and memory support skills.

Students who completed all the exercises in the programme achieved significantly higher reading and vocabulary scores.

The treatment effect exceeded 0.75 standard deviations of adjusted class means.

Collaborating with teachers to study work habits

• When we define a term such as self-regulated learning and provide attendant examples from the research literature, we ask teachers to illustrate the same concept using instances from their own teaching experience.
• We provide assistance to teachers who wish to use our curriculum or adapt it for their purposes.
• We communicate with teachers about how to personalise the curriculum and the quest-related strategies it offers for students to polish their work.
• The experiences teachers devise for their particular students have a common goal: to teach self-regulation strategies and encourage students to apply them naturally when planning for their own challenging quests or events.
• The teachers understand that work habits can develop into a productive work style, meaning a way of doing things that contributes to success across the curriculum.
• We address helping students to find the motivation (or will) to perform in school.
• Teachers indicate that a student’s sense of efficacy can be fragile. Moreover, even confident learners can falter when faced with a disappointing performance.
• We share new theories with teachers about the concept of aptitude, which is no longer perceived as innate and unchanging.
• Aptitude is now understood to be a ‘fit’ between demands and preparation.
• The cultivation of aptitude for schooling can be perceived as the cultivation of attention to contextual cues.
• The processes of motivation and volition rise and fall away in a context of increasing demands and decreasing support.
• Although it is the putative role of the teacher to promote student learning in educational situations, students mediate all the instruction they receive.
• Mediation (including self-regulation) is powerful; it builds self-confidence, leading to other attainments.

Example curriculum to exercise and develop budding work habits

• Students maintain records of time spent preparing for tests or quizzes outside school, numbers of assignments tackled for extra credit, and any ways they sought assistance when completing homework assignments and projects (such as self-management charts).
• Students share with each other and the teacher information on the following: how they manage their work, descriptions of their work space at home, habitual work tactics, any strategies used for action control, and work styles.
• Students write about the ways they plan and prepare for tests and what they do to stay on task both in and outside the class (such as making lists, colour-coding notes, drawing up tables, or self-monitoring).
• Using good examples from materials they provide, stronger students are asked to share their strategies as peer helpers.
• Students are asked to reflect on their work habits as course activities progress.
• Teachers can present students with problems to solve and other scenarios that prompt evidence of more- and less-productive ways of tackling tasks and investing effort.
• Teachers can take notes on work habits they observe to be developing in individual students throughout the year, which can be shared with students and parents to increase productivity.
• It can be profitable if parents take notes about any salient points.
• In an experiment following an assignment, a partner asks the student to envision a game plan for completing the task, with the aim of the student thinking through when and where they could work. This request was sufficient to induce an action plan for completing the task in the majority of student participants.

Herein, evidence from 15 Early Grade Reading (EGR) interventions are summarised. It was found that EGR interventions are not a guaranteed means of improving reading and rarely lead to fluency in the short term. However, they are a predominantly reliable method of making substantial improvements in reading skills over a short period of time across a variety of contexts. The average effects equate to approximately three years of schooling.

Authors: Jimmy Graham & Sean Kelly

Source: Graham, J. & Kelly, S. (2019). How effective are early grade reading interventions? A review of the evidence. Education Research Review, 27, 155-175, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.03.006

Early Grade Reading interventions are programmes that aim to strengthen core reading skills in Grades 1–4. This is achieved by training teachers to teach reading using simplified instruction and evidence-based curricula and by employing a combination of complementary approaches. Herein, evidence from 15 EGR interventions are summarised. It was found that EGR interventions are not a guaranteed means to improve reading and they rarely lead to fluency in the short term. However, they are a mainly reliable means of making substantial improvements in reading skills over a short period of time across a variety of contexts, with average effects equating to approximately three years of schooling.

• Despite increasing enrolment rates, early grade illiteracy is widespread in the developing world.
• UNESCO estimates that 250 million primary school-aged children (out of a total of 650 million) are failing to acquire basic reading skills.
• Illiteracy has wide-ranging costs.
• Illiteracy prevents millions of children from taking advantage of the extensive benefits of education.
• Societal shortcomings in literacy may constrain economic growth and lead to higher societal costs in terms of employment, education, crime, and health.
• Early Grade Reading interventions are a specific type of programme intended to strengthen core reading skills in Grades 1–4 and are emerging as a potential solution to address the crisis of illiteracy.

Teacher training

• Training must move beyond large, conference-style, one-off, professional development workshops to personal extensive training focused on practical skills.
• Training should focus specifically on reading.
• Training should have a basis in reading curricula that follows evidence from education and cognitive research, be appropriate to student ability levels, and cater to the local language and level of resources available.

In-service training

• In-service training should emphasise and explain to participants the five main reading skills central to EGR interventions: phonemic awareness, letter-sound knowledge, vocabulary, reading fluency, and comprehension.
• Initial in-service training at the start of the EGR intervention lasts from five to ten days. This is followed by refresher training of three to five days taken during school breaks in the middle of project implementation.
• In-service training should use cascade models that train master trainers or coaches who then deliver the training to teachers.
• Teachers should learn how to use instructional guidelines and how to integrate new reading materials into their lessons. They should also learn and practice instructional techniques and activities that develop reading skills (such as the ‘I Do, We Do, You Do’ approach).
• Guidelines enable teachers to develop simple reading instruction routines. Ideally, they should provide step-by-step instructions without too many words or complex procedures.
• The length of lessons in instructional guidelines should range between 30 and 90 min.
• Evidence suggests that scripting lessons tends to enhance the effectiveness of reading instruction in low- and middle-income countries.
• Coaching and continual feedback have been found to be beneficial.
• During visits, coaches observe teachers as they deliver reading lessons to their students. After the lesson, the coach provides individualised feedback with the aim of reinforcing concepts from in-service teacher training, improving lesson content, or helping the teacher apply instructional techniques more effectively.
• Reading materials appropriate for the local context are fundamental for instruction (once teachers have been trained how to use them).
• The supplementary instructional materials of EGR interventions permit students to practice letter sounds, hear teachers or other students read aloud, learn new vocabulary, and read stories.
• Assessments are a critical part of effective reading instruction. Accordingly, effective EGR interventions often include the furnishing tools and training for student assessment as another component.
• Assessments evaluate student reading skills such as letter sounds, familiar words, listening comprehension, or passages of connected text with reading comprehension questions.
• Student assessments can indicate to teachers those students who need additional instruction in specific reading skills.

The study

This paper adds to the literature by presenting a clear definition of EGR interventions and a rationale for why they should enhance reading skills. Further, evidence from 15 impact evaluations occurring across a large variety of contexts are summarised.

The data

Data consisted of 15 evaluations of EGR interventions. When examining these evaluations, the focus was on their effect on reading fluency, letter-sound knowledge, and comprehension.

Implications

• EGR interventions have emerged as a possible solution to the widespread problem of illiteracy among early primary school students in developing countries.
• The findings reveal that EGR interventions are mostly consistent in improving outcomes for letter-sound knowledge, fluency, and comprehension (as measured by LNR/LSR, ORF, and RC).
• While practical gains represented substantial improvements over the status quo, they were rarely large enough to bring students close to fluency.
• Generally, the interventions were slightly more effective at improving outcomes in practical terms for LSR/LNR compared to ORF/RC, although several interventions had very large gains in practical terms for all three subtasks.
• Overall, grade level, intervention length, programme size, and language of assessment did not appear to influence the outcomes substantially.
• EGR interventions are a mostly reliable method (regardless of context) of making substantial improvements in reading skills and accelerating learning in many contexts.
• Rigorously training teachers to teach reading using evidence-based simplified curricula is probably a powerful element for making progress in reading skills.

This meta-analysis summarises 74 studies (N = 80,145) that simultaneously examined the predictive power of intelligence and motivation for school achievement. In a path model, 24% of variance in school achievement was explained overall, 66.6% was uniquely explained by intelligence, and 16.6% uniquely by motivation. Both intelligence and motivation contribute substantial and unique shares to the prediction of school achievement and an additional share of commonly explained variance.

Authors: Katharina Kriegbaum, Nicolas Becker & Birgit Spinath

Source: Kriegbaum, K., Becker, N. & Spinath, B. (2018). The relative importance of intelligence and motivation as predictors of school achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 25, 120-148, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.10.001

This meta-analysis summarises 74 studies (N = 80,145) that simultaneously examined the predictive power of intelligence and motivation for school achievement. The average correlations were moderate between intelligence (r = 0.44) and motivation (r = 0.27) with school achievement and between intelligence and motivation (r = 0.17). Correlation between motivation and school achievement was higher for expectancies than for values. In a path model, 24% of variance in school achievement was explained overall, 66.6% was uniquely explained by intelligence, and 16.6% uniquely by motivation. Both intelligence and motivation contribute substantial and unique shares to the prediction of school achievement and an additional share of commonly explained variance.

• School achievement is strongly influenced by individual student prerequisities, such as cognitive and motivational factors.
• The term school achievement summarises performance outcomes in all domains taught at school.
• School achievement functions as a selection criterion for subsequent education and jobs and is typically operationalised via school grades or standardised tests.
• Standardised test achievements are a purer measure of student achievement compared to grades. However, school grades can be perceived as a highly ecologically valid measure of school achievement because they are good predictors of future academic success and are used as allocation and selection criteria for higher education and jobs.
• Verbal and mixed intelligence tests are more strongly associated with school achievement than nonverbal intelligence.
• Intelligence is more strongly related to standardised test achievements than to school grades.
• Achievement motivation can be divided into expectancies (academic self-concept and self-efficacy), and values (intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, task values, achievement motive, achievement goals and interest).
• Intelligence and motivation have been shown to predict school achievement, with intelligence typically being the stronger predictor.

What is motivation?

Expectancies

• Academic self-concept is an individual’s perception of their competence in a specific domain.
• Self-efficacy is individual expectancy about future performance and is typically measured as a conviction about how well one will be able to solve a certain task in the future.

Values

• The value attributed to a certain task comprises different components: intrinsic value (enjoyment of task or interest), importance values (importance of doing well on a certain task), utility value (usefulness of a certain task for one’s future), and cost.
• Interest can be defined as a personality-specific trait (such as a relatively stable preference for a specific learning topic) and a situation-specific state related to attraction of a specific learning condition.
• Whereas intrinsic motivation is defined as engaging in something for its own sake and for enjoyment, extrinsic motivation is defined as doing something for its consequences.
• Achievement goals can be divided in four different types: mastery-approach goals focus on the positive development of one’s own competence; mastery-avoidance goals tap the fear of losing competence; performance-approach goals focus on demonstrating one’s own competence and performing better than others; and performance-avoidance goals focus on hiding supposed incompetence and striving not to perform worse than others.
• Achievement motives include hope for success (a positive attitude towards performance), the belief that one can succeed, positive emotions in achievement situations, and fear of failure (such as a negative, fearful attitude towards performance and negative emotions in corresponding situations).

The study

The purpose of the present meta-analysis was to summarise findings from the literature to investigate the relative importance of motivation and intelligence in predicting school achievement. Another purpose was to identify relevant moderator variables, including the type of achievement measure, motivational construct, intelligence measure, subject domain, study design, grade level, school form, gender, country, and year of publication.

Data

Data for the meta-analysis consisted of 74 published or unpublished studies.

Implications

• A central finding of the meta-analysis is that intelligence and motivation are only weakly positively associated.
• Results indicate that intelligence is a strong predictor of school achievement.
• The average correlation between motivation and school achievement is moderate and positive.
• Expectancies such as academic self-concept and self-efficacy are more accurate predictors of school achievement compared to values such as intrinsic motivation, interest, achievement motive, and achievement goals.
• Since motivation is easier to influence and foster through instructional characteristics, feedback, learning contexts and situational factors, teachers should be aware of their power to motivate students toward higher achievement.
• Students should develop positive expectancies for success in their future assignments and exams and a realistic (yet positive) self-concept regarding ability.
• Teachers should support their students in developing a realistic academic self-concept. For example, this can be achieved by varying the difficulty of tasks, setting short-term goals, and providing clear, specific, and informative feedback.

This study presents a systematic review of available empirical research on primary school students’ first language listening skills. At the classroom level, students’ listening skills and teaching practices (such as listening strategy instruction) in addition to classroom features (such as classroom noise) were related. At the student level, students’ listening skills and their cognitive skills (such as working memory) and background characteristics (such as socioeconomic status) were related.

Authors: Heleen Bourdeaud’hui, Koen Aesaert, Hilde Ven Keer, & Johan van Braak

Source: Bourdeaud’hui, H; Aesaert, K.; Van Keer, H.; van Braak, J. (2018). Identifying student and classroom characteristics related to primary school students’ listening skills: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 25, 86-99, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.005

This study presents a systematic review of available empirical research on primary school students’ first language listening skills. In total, 27 studies were selected and reviewed. First, the outcome variables of listening skills were labelled, with the results indicating that most studies evaluated listening skills as the ability to remember, understand, or interpret an auditory message. Second, important correlates related to primary school students’ listening skills were identified. At the classroom level, students’ listening skills and teaching practices (such as listening strategy instruction) in addition to classroom features (such as classroom noise) were related. At the student level, students’ listening skills and their cognitive skills (such as working memory) and background characteristics (such as socioeconomic status) were related.

• Listening, speaking, reading, and writing are the four language skills.
• In an educational context, research indicates that primary school students spend approximately 50%–75% of each school day listening to teachers, classmates, or audio-supported media.
• Listening skills remain rather challenging for many students, especially for non-native speakers and students with language impairments, learning disabilities, or hyperactivity disorders.
• Classroom noise and poor acoustics could have an effect on listening skills.
• There is a shortage of listening instruction.

Why are listening skills important?

• Listening skills and academic success (or knowledge) are closely connected, since listening is an important medium for students to process and acquire information.
• Listening skills play a key role in literacy success and the development of numerous other language skills, such as reading comprehension and writing.
• Students need listening skills to understand practical oral instructions from the teacher, such as homework assignments.
• Good listening skills are fundamental for the development of social and relational skills in the school context.

The study

The intent of this study is to analyse existing listening literature and provide a systematic overview of the correlates of primary school students’ listening skills.

Research questions:

1. How are student listening skills defined and described in different studies according to the HURIER model?
2. According to the model of Palardy and Rumberger (2008), which input and process characteristics are related to primary school students’ listening skills?

The data consisted of 27 articles reviewed in this study.

Implications

• Listening skills are a prerequisite for further educational success.
• The relationship between correlates and listening skills was primarily investigated towards the ‘lower levels’ of listening skills (remembering, understanding, and interpreting).
• Different student level characteristics (such as academic background, demographics, and family background) are correlated to student listening skills.
• Working memory and vocabulary are especially significant predictors of listening skills.
• A student’s socioeconomic status is related to their listening skills.
• Students will remember more facts from auditory texts when they receive instruction in the specific structure of the text type (such as a narrative or expository strategy instruction).
• Student listening skills can be improved through applying visual techniques during listening training, such as telling stories supported by illustration or asking students to paint a picture of the main features in their mind.
• Listening strategy instruction affects listening skills positively. For example, teaching students different listening strategies (such as listening for a purpose or predicting what could happen) will improve their listening skills.
• Listening skills can be improved through integrating listening activities into the entire curriculum and by combining listening activities with speaking, reading, or writing activities.
• Poor interior acoustics and background noise cause attention loss and exacerbate listening difficulties, while sound system improvements positively influence student listening skills.
• Reducing class sizes and/or investing in sound systems by improving the sound environment in the classroom will positively influence student listening performance.