Adaptive skills can be defined as ‘a critical set of important behaviours that are learned and performed throughout life and allow to meet societal expectations for individuals of a given age group (Tassé, 2020)’ or ‘the ability to translate cognitive potential into real life skills (Sparrow & Cicchetti, 1985)’.
The foundations of adaptive skills are laid down from the moment a child is born, and mastering various skills at different levels during childhood determines their future ability to control and master their environment.
Adaptive behaviours can be assessed through a general adaptive composite (GAC), which is an overall measure of adaptive development based on different skill areas, such as communication, community use, functional academics, health and safety, home or school living, leisure, self-care, self-direction, social, work and motor skills.
Families, teachers and communities have a great role in shaping and helping children develop adaptive skills. Therefore, parental involvement (e.g. positive parenting practices), early childhood education programs (e.g. high-quality programs and curriculum), community support (e.g. community resources and supportive networks) and intervention programs (e.g. including physical therapy, speech therapy or special education services) are useful in supporting adaptive skill development.
What are adaptive skills?
Today, there are a number of definitions that try to elaborate on what adaptive skill development means. The definitions are stated in various styles, but when analysed critically, they mean the same thing, although some dare to refer to adaptive skills as adaptive behaviours. Oakland et al. (2008) defined adaptive skills as the ways in which different people meet their needs or deal with the natural and social demands in their environments. Oakland et al. (2008) believed that adaptive skills are a group of behaviours that allow a person to function effectively every day at home, school and work and in the community. Tassé (2020) defined adaptive skills as a ‘critical set of important behaviours that are learned and performed throughout our lives and allow us to meet societal expectations for individuals of our age group’. Sparrow and Cicchetti (1985) defined adaptive behaviour as the ‘ability to translate cognitive potential into real-life skills’. The above definitions give room to conclude that adaptive skills are key aspects that an individual needs to have to master his/her everyday executions. Any person who misses these skills becomes independent, and the world regards him/her as abnormal. Thus, adaptive skills are very important for every person. Difficulties and a lack of adaptive skills are also important components in intellectual disabilities (See Cognitive development and difficulties: Intellectual disability.).
Practical skills consist of basic personal care skills, such as self-care (which include feeding, dressing, toileting, bathing and personal hygiene), domestic skills, health and safety, work skills and motor skills (fine and gross motor skills, such as manipulating objects, walking and coordination). Developing practical skills fosters independence and self-confidence. These skills include:
Self-care and hygiene: Children begin to learn basic hygiene tasks, such as washing hands, brushing teeth and dressing themselves.
Feeding: Children at this stage learn to feed themselves using utensils appropriately and gradually become more independent with mealtimes.
Independence in daily routines: As they grow, children develop the ability to follow simple routines, such as cleaning up after themselves, organizing their belongings and getting dressed independently.
Social skills
Social skills consist of interpersonal skills, sharing, cooperating, having social responsibility, following rules, taking turns, having self-esteem, being gullible, understanding social cues and avoiding victimization. Social skills are crucial for forming positive relationships with other children, for example, when they are playing together, and helping children understand social norms and interact appropriately in various settings. These skills include:
Communication skills: Both verbal and non-verbal communication (such as facial expressions and body language) are essential for children to express themselves and understand others (Hoff, 2021).
Empathy and perspective-taking: As children grow, they begin to recognize the emotions of others and develop the ability to show empathy. This is often seen in behaviours such as comforting a peer who is upset.
Cooperation and turn-taking: Social interactions in group settings help children understand concepts such as sharing, taking turns and cooperating with others.
Conceptual skills
Conceptual skills consist of functional academics, communication skills (these encompass both verbal and non-verbal communication, including understanding and using language, listening skills and expressing his/her needs and feelings) and the concepts of time, money management and self-direction. Together, conceptual skills refer to cognitive abilities that allow children to understand their world, develop problem-solving strategies and process information. These skills include:
Language development: From learning basic vocabulary to forming simple sentences, language is a key conceptual skill that enables children to communicate their needs, thoughts and feelings.
Cognitive skills: Problem-solving, memory and attention span are developed as children interact with their environment. Simple tasks such as puzzles or sorting objects by colour or shape help develop these skills (Bjorklund & Causey, 2023).
Basic numeracy and literacy: Children in ECEC settings begin to understand number concepts, patterns and early literacy skills, such as letter recognition and phonics (Neuman & Moland, 2019).
Development of adaptive skills and developmental challenges
The development of adaptive skills in early childhood occurs through a combination of genetic predisposition, environmental influences and personal experiences (Ginsburg et al., 2022). According to different scholars and psychologists, such as Jean Piaget, Urie Bronfenbrenner and Erick Erickson, the foundations of adaptive skills are laid down from the moment a child is born. Mastering various skills at different levels during child development determines their future ability to control and master their environment, while failure to do so results in developmental difficulties. That is, the early years of life of our children are crucial in building strong generations, and this can be achieved through building a foundation of adaptive skills that will support future development. Families, teachers and communities have a great role in shaping and helping children develop adaptive skills at the right time.
While adaptive skills are critical for independent living, many individuals face challenges in developing them. These difficulties may arise due to developmental disabilities, mental health issues or environmental barriers. Deficits in adaptive behaviour are sometimes associated with several neurodevelopmental disorders, including intellectual functioning (Tassé, 2017). Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), intellectual disability and Down syndrome can affect language, social and self-care development (Lord et al., 2022).
Developmental disabilities: Conditions such as ASD, Down syndrome and intellectual disabilities can impact the development of adaptive skills. Individuals with these conditions may struggle with communication, social interactions or independent living tasks. For example:
Communication difficulties: Children with ASD may struggle to express themselves or understand others’ feelings and perspectives.
Social challenges: Individuals with developmental disabilities may find it difficult to navigate social situations, misreading social cues or engaging in inappropriate behaviours.
Self-care issues: Individuals may require assistance with personal hygiene, dressing or feeding.
Mental health issues: Mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorder can impede the development or application of adaptive skills. Childhood anxiety and depression affect emotional regulation and independence (Egger & Angold, 2020). Common issues include:
Emotional regulation: Anxiety and depression can interfere with emotional control, leading to difficulties in managing stress or frustration.
Social withdrawal: Mental health disorders often cause individuals to isolate themselves, hindering the development of social skills.
Impaired decision-making: Mental health issues can cloud judgement, making it challenging to make choices that support independence and wellbeing.
Environmental and societal barriers: Low socio economic status (SES), lack of caregiver support and stigma hinder adaptive outcomes (Super & Harkness, 2020). Environmental factors can also affect the development of adaptive skills. These include:
Lack of support systems: Individuals without strong family, educational or community support may struggle to learn and apply adaptive skills.
Economic hardship: Economic stress can create obstacles to developing skills related to financial independence and stable living conditions.
Cultural stigmas: In some cultures, individuals with disabilities or those who differ from social norms may face discrimination, limiting opportunities for skill development and independence.
Having challenges in developing skills does not mean that a child cannot be helped to be like their peers. Appreciated assessment and intervention measures can rescue the situation, either by eliminating the challenge or minimizing its later effects. Therefore, when challenges are identified early and given immediate attention, it is possible to help children who are at risk of developing adaptive skills. Thus, conducting regular, comprehensive adaptive skills development assessments among children is very important. Families and teachers need to understand the indicators of children who are at risk of either lagging behind or not developing adaptive skills as their friends of the same age.
Adaptive skills assessment
Skills and behavioural patterns change throughout a person’s development, life settings, social constructs, evolution of personal values and the expectations of others. It is important to assess adaptive behaviour to determine how well an individual functions in daily life: vocationally, socially and educationally. One way of assessing adaptive skill development is through the assessment of a general adaptive composite (GAC). GAC provides an overall measure of adaptive development based on the different skill areas such as communication, community use, functional academics, health and safety, home or school living, leisure, self-care, self-direction, social, work and motor skills.
Therefore, the GAC is one of the four domain composite scores used to assess adaptive skill development. The four domains include conceptual, social, practical and GAC. These four domains are consistent with the American Association of Mental Retardation’s recent guidelines (Harrison & Oakland, 2008).
The general adaptive composite summarises performance across all adaptive skill areas. The GAC compares a person’s global adaptive skills to the adaptive skills of others in the same age group from the standardization sample. Sample items for each skill area are communication, community use, functional academics, health and safety, home or school living, leisure, self-care, self-direction, social, work and motor skills (e.g. running without falling).
A child’s adaptive skills development is identified based on the assessment scores by comparing the child’s score against the standard score of the same age group. These assessments provide insights into a child’s strengths and areas in need of support, guiding tailored intervention strategies.
Strategies for Enhancing Adaptive Skills
Parental involvement: Parents play a crucial role in nurturing adaptive skills through daily interactions and activities. Positive parenting practices, such as providing consistent routines, modelling appropriate behaviours and offering encouragement, are vital.
Early childhood education programs: High-quality early childhood education programs provide structured environments in which children can develop adaptive skills. Curriculum that includes play-based learning, social skills training and individualized support are particularly effective.
Developmentally appropriate practices: Developmentally appropriate practices (DAPs) must focus on teaching practices that are grounded in research about how children develop and learn. DAPs emphasize understanding children’s individual developmental stages and learning styles (NAEYC, 2020). A preschool classroom that follows DAP will create a learning environment in which children engage in play-based learning, which is critical for developing adaptive skills, such as problem-solving, social interaction, communication and self-regulation.
Inclusive education and supporting diverse learners: All children, regardless of their abilities or disabilities, should be able to participate in general education settings. This approach is particularly relevant to the development of adaptive skills, as it encourages children with learning difficulties or developmental delays to engage in activities that promote skill-building in real-world contexts. Teachers can employ to support diverse learners through individualized support, promoting independence and collaborative partnerships with families, caregivers and professionals.
Community support: Community resources, such as schools, parks and recreational programs, offer additional opportunities for children to practice and enhance their adaptive skills. Community involvement also fosters a supportive network for families.
Intervention programs For children with developmental delays or disabilities, early intervention programs are critical. These programs often include physical therapy, speech therapy and special education services tailored to each child’s needs.
References
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Harrison, P. L., & Oakland, T. (2008). ABAS-II assessment methods. In T. Oakland & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Adaptive behavior assessment system-II (pp. 37–49). Academic Press.
Lord, C., Brugha, T. S., Charman, T., Cusack, J., Dumas, G., Frazier, T., Jones, E. J. H., Jones, R. M., Pickles, A., State, M. W., Lounds Taylor, J., & Veenstra-VanderWeele, J. (2020). Autism spectrum disorder. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 6(1), article 5.
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Tassé, M. J (2017). Adaptive Behavior. In K.A. Shogren, M.L. Wehmeyer, & N.N. Singh (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology in intellectual and developmental disabilities: Translating research into practice (pp. 201–215). Springer.
Tassé, M.J. (2020). Adaptive behavior and functional life skills across the lifespan: Conceptual and measurement issues. In R. Lang & P. Sturmey (Eds), Evidence-based practices for teaching Adaptive behavior to people with intellectual and developmental disability across the life span (pp 1–20). Springer Publishing.
