Self-regulation refers broadly to the various processes through which our mind regulates our cognitive functions, emotions and behaviours.
Executive function refers to a set of skills that enable children to plan ahead and meet goals, display self-control, follow multi-step directions and stay focused despite disruptions.
There are three other main components in executive function: working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility.
There are many benefits of executive functions during childhood, such as positive behaviours, learning and school achievement. Lifelong benefits are related to good health and successful work.
In this section, we will describe examples of activities that will support executive function and self-regulation skills at different age levels.
ADHD includes atypical difficulties in regulating activity levels for an individual’s age and developmental stage (commonly hyperactivity and motor restlessness), impulsivity and inattention.
On a cognitive level, ADHD is most commonly explained by weaker or slower-developing executive functioning or self-regulation skills compared to other children.
Self-regulation and executive functions
Self-regulation refers broadly to the various processes through which our mind regulates our cognitive functions, emotions and behaviours. Under this umbrella concept, there are different sub-concepts with varying emphases and backgrounds, such as self-control, which specifically refers to the prevention of undesirable behaviours, and effortful control, a concept rooted in Rothbart’s research on temperament. In these studies, the term refers to the ease with which self-regulation occurs as an innate trait. Executive functions refer to cognitive processes that direct, integrate and control other cognitive functions and behaviours. Often, voluntary and selective attention is considered part of broader self-regulation (See Nigg, 2017).
Executive function refers to a set of skills that enable a child to:
plan ahead and meet goals
display self-control
follow multi-step directions and
stay focused despite disruptions
Executive functions and self-regulation skills provide support for development and learning. Executive function skills allow children to retain and work with information in the brain, focus attention, filter distractions and switch mental gears. Attention is often compared to a spotlight, which helps a person select from the rich field of stimuli in the environment and from the abundance of memories, images and thoughts in our inner world, focusing on the things and stimuli that our mind processes at any given moment. Attention and its direction are key to learning, as we learn and remember things that our attention is focused on. The concept of executive function is generally thought to consist of interrelated sub-functions. The first is the flexible orientation of attention, or voluntary attention, which develops in the early years of life. Voluntary attention is a prerequisite for a child not to be solely dependent on the strength and novelty of various environmental stimuli but to be able to direct their attention to less attention-grabbing but, for example, key environmental events or features important for learning (Nigg, 2017).
There are three other main components of executive function:
Working memory (ability to hold information in mind and use it).
Inhibitory control (the ability to master thoughts and impulses so as to resist temptations, distractions and habits and think before acting). Related to attention, inhibition can involve blocking or reducing the impact of other stimuli in selective and voluntary attention while providing time for regulation through inner speech – the child has time to ‘think first and react later’ rather than the other way around, as often happens with children who have attention and self-regulation difficulties.
Cognitive flexibility (the capacity to switch gears and adjust to changing demands, priorities or perspectives)
These components and the development of executive function skills are described in detail in the Literacy learning section . When children have opportunities to develop executive function and self-regulation skills successfully, there are many benefits during childhood: Executive function (Important background factors).
Positive behaviours. Executive function skills help children develop skills of working in teams, focusing on goals, thinking critically and adapting. These skills help children be aware of their own emotions, as well as those of others.
Learning and school achievement. Executive function skills help children remember and follow multi-step instructions, avoid distractions, control rash responses, adjust when rules change, persist at problem solving and manage long-term assignments.
Lifelong benefits are related to good health and successful work.
Although children are not born with executive function skills, every child is born with the potential to develop them. The foundation is laid in infancy, when babies first learn to pay attention . Relationships with responsive caregivers are particularly important at this stage. Development of these skills takes time, and it starts in infancy, continues in early childhood and continues into early adulthood. This developmental process is shaped by our experiences.
Children build these skills through engagement in meaningful social interactions and enjoyable activities at increasingly demanding levels. Therefore, positive and supportive adult-child interactions both at home and ECEC centres are very important for developing these executive function skills.
Individual differences in self-regulation skills and executive functioning are linked to important developmental goals, such as school readiness (Blair & Raver, 2015), academic performance (Spiegel et al., 2021) and social skills. Children who have developed executive function skills find it easier to adapt to school demands, such as sitting still in class, directing attention to the material being learned, following school rules and transitioning flexibly between tasks. Executive function skills also help children engage with and deepen their learning, which often leads to better academic outcomes. Later in life, these skills are also linked to health and socio-economic status (Moffitt et al., 2011).
The neural network underlying executive functioning is connected not only to the regulation of visual attention and the performance of cognitive tasks but also to a child’s ability to regulate their own positive and negative emotions. Positive emotions and emotional experiences play a crucial role in the development of planning and guiding behaviours related to learning and problem-solving skills. Positive emotional experiences in task situations open up possibilities for redirecting attention and meeting new challenges. Developmental disruptions in self-regulation are caused by ongoing negative and distressing emotional arousal and stress, which may result from frequent failures or feelings of inadequacy in learning situations a child cannot manage. Good self-regulation helps to moderate negative emotions related to learning, such as anxiety or fear, thereby reducing their adverse impact on learning (Posner & Rothbart, 2022).
In the African context, where large classes are the norm or even with multi-grade classes in one classroom, it becomes necessary for teachers to focus on self-regulation skills in children. The following levels of self-regulation/self-directedness have been observed:
A learner at level 0 of self-directedness hinders others and does not focus on tasks. At level 1, the learner has to be regularly reminded to do their work, stay seated and not distract others. A learner at level 2 will be working on their own most of the time with minimal hindering of other learners. At level 3, the learner can work on their own, completes tasks and will be helpful towards others, and at level 4, the learner is self-directed, focused, sympathetic and helpful towards others. The ideal for a teacher is to guide the learners and expect them to reach level 3 at least.
Activities that will support the development of executive functions
The following examples of activities that will support executive function and self-regulation skills are based on the materials of the Center on the Developing Child Harvard University
During this stage of development, infants are active:
to focus attention
use working memory
practice basic self-control skills
Supportive and responsive interactions with adults are the foundation for the healthy development of these skills, and particular activities can strengthen these skills. It is important to attend to the infant’s interests and select activities that are enjoyable while also allowing the infant to determine how long to play.
Executive function activities for 18–36-month-olds
Children are rapidly expanding their language skills, and language plays an important role in the development of executive function and self-regulation. Language helps children identify their thoughts and actions, reflect on them and make plans that they hold in mind and use. Language also helps children understand and follow increasingly complex rules that regulate behaviour and those that apply to simple games. Additionally, bilingualism is associated with better executive functions, so parents who are fluent in more than one language should use those languages with their children.
Children’s executive function and self-regulation skills grow at a fast pace during this period. Therefore, it is important to adapt activities to match the skills of each child. Younger children need a lot of support in learning rules and structures, while older children can be more independent. Ultimately, the goal is to shift children away from relying on adult regulation, so when they seem ready, try to reduce the support you provide.
Games can exercise children’s executive function and self-regulation skills and allow them to practice these skills in different ways. Children start to enjoy games that have rules but do so with widely varying levels of interest and skill. Since an important aspect of developing these skills is having a constant challenge, it is important to choose games that are demanding but not too hard for each child. As children become familiar with these games, try to decrease the adult role as soon as possible; the challenge is greater for children if they remember and enforce the rules independently. Just be prepared with some techniques for negotiating conflict. Flipping a coin or drawing a straw are some methods used by Tools of the Mind, an early education program designed to build self-regulation.
The key features and diagnostic criteria of ADHD include atypical difficulties in regulating activity levels for an individual’s age and developmental stage (commonly hyperactivity and motor restlessness), impulsivity and inattention. ADHD may manifest in one specific symptom area (e.g. inattention) or across all three areas. It is estimated that approximately 4–7% of children are affected, making it one of the most common developmental disorders. Symptoms, particularly hyperactivity, are often recognizable before school age, but their presentation and impact change with age and as environmental demands evolve. Difficulties with inattention and concentration typically come to attention during preschool or school age, when environmental demands for sustained focus on tasks and studies increase (Bitsko et al., 2024).
ADHD is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Among the background factors, the strongest evidence comes from genetics, which accounts for 60–90% of childhood ADHD susceptibility. ADHD has a multifactorial genetic basis, and the causal relationship between individual genes and ADHD has not yet been established. Additionally, some prenatal factors (e.g. maternal alcohol use and smoking) and complications during childbirth increase the risk of ADHD. Similar to many other neuro-developmental and psychiatric conditions, its causes are complex and heterogeneous, with an accumulation of multiple and interacting contributing genetic and environmental risks associated with subtle alterations in brain structure and function (Sonuga‐Barke et. al., 2023).
On a cognitive level, ADHD is most commonly explained by weaker or slower-developing executive functioning or self-regulation skills compared to other children. Therefore, when planning support interventions, it is practical to approach ADHD from the perspective of self-regulation. On a group level, children with ADHD consistently exhibit poorer executive functioning skills than their peers (Frazier et al., 2004), and they tend to perform worse in situations that require maintaining motivation without immediate or external feedback (Luman et al., 2005).
There is a lack of research on the role of environmental factors in the development of ADHD. However, it is evident that family-related risk factors, such as inconsistent parenting and violence, increase a child’s defiance and aggression. Developmentally, a child’s ADHD symptoms and family interactions seem to be in a reciprocal relationship. A child’s restless and impulsive behaviour places strain on parents, complicates family life and challenges the parents’ ability to maintain consistent parenting. On the other hand, smooth family routines, predictable and regular activities, supportive and positive interaction and consistent parenting help the child develop self-regulation skills.
Before school age, ADHD-related behavioural characteristics often highlight motor restlessness and impulsivity. Inattention is usually less pronounced, which is partly due to the large individual differences in children’s attention skills before school age, and partly because, at this stage, children are not expected to engage in tasks requiring sustained attention (Claussen et al., 2024).
At school age, inattention and difficulties with sustained concentration often directly hinder schoolwork and study. Inattention may manifest as wandering thoughts or difficulty focusing on the right task. A typical symptom is distractibility, meaning that attention involuntarily shifts from the task at hand to irrelevant stimuli.
Motor restlessness and impulsivity – reacting quickly and without thinking – often conflict with the behavioural expectations of the school environment. Specifically, during lessons, motor hyperactivity can disrupt teaching and other students’ learning, often resulting in negative feedback from teachers and perhaps even from other students. Impulsivity in studying often shows up as haste and impatience.
In social situations, inattention and impulsivity may lead to misinterpretations, such as misunderstanding others’ behaviour and intentions, and inappropriate actions. This quick and context-insensitive behaviour is often disruptive to others and easily leads to conflicts and negative feedback. Conflicts are likely to arise in informal and unstructured situations, such as during recess.
In a child’s social environments, particularly in school, there is an expectation for continuing sustained work, staying in one place, following long and complex instructions and having the ability to remain undistracted by various stimuli in group situations. When a child repeatedly fails at tasks and social situations and feels like a poor student, both school motivation and self-confidence in their ability to perform are diminished.
To determine the association between executive function and later externalizing (uncontrolled, impulsive or aggressive) and internalizing (withdrawal, fearfulness, anxiety, inhibition, somatization, sadness and/or hopelessness) problems, Yang et al. (2022) conducted a meta-analysis of 167 studies that explored the longitudinal associations between executive functions in children and subsequent externalizing and internalizing problems.
The results indicated that greater child executive function was prospectively associated with fewer ADHD symptoms, fewer conduct problems, fewer oppositional defiant disorder symptoms, less substance use, fewer broad externalizing problems, fewer depression symptoms and fewer broad internalizing problems but not with subsequent anxiety symptoms. These findings suggest that executive function in children prospectively predicts numerous externalizing and internalizing behaviours, suggesting that executive function may be an important target for psychopathology prevention programs and interventions.
Bitsko, R. H., Holbrook, J. R., O’Masta, B., Maher, B., Cerles, A., Saadeh, K., … & Kaminski, J. W. (2024). A systematic review and meta-analysis of prenatal, birth, and postnatal factors associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Prevention Science, 25(Suppl 2), 203–224.
Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2015). School readiness and self-regulation: A developmental psychobiological approach. Annual Review of Psychology, 66(1), 711–731.
Claussen, A. H., Holbrook, J. R., Hutchins, H. J., Robinson, L. R., Bloomfield, J., Meng, L., … & Kaminski, J. W. (2024). All in the family? A systematic review and meta-analysis of parenting and family environment as risk factors for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children. Prevention Science, 25(Suppl 2), 249–271.
Luman, M., Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (2005). The impact of reinforcement contingencies on AD/HD: A review and theoretical appraisal. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(2), 183–213.
Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., … & Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693–2698.
Nigg, J. T. (2017). Annual research review: On the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(4), 361–383.
Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2022). Individual differences in temperament and the efficiency of brain networks. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 43, 242–248.
Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Becker, S. P., Bölte, S., Castellanos, F. X., Franke, B., Newcorn, J. H., … & Simonoff, E. (2023). Annual research review: Perspectives on progress in ADHD science–from characterization to cause. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 64(4), 506–532.
Spiegel, J. A., Goodrich, J. M., Morris, B. M., Osborne, C. M., & Lonigan, C. J. (2021). Relations between executive functions and academic outcomes in elementary school children: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 147(4), 329.
Yang, Y., Shields, G. S., Zhang, Y., Wu, H., Chen, H., & Romer, A. L. (2022). Child executive function and future externalizing and internalizing problems: A meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 97, 102194.
