Psychological and educational sciences play a vital role in improving teaching and learning in early childhood settings.
The American Psychological Association (APA, 2015) identified five research-based principles that explain how children learn and how educational practices can be enhanced in early childhood education.
These principles address: (1) children’s thinking and learning, (2) motivation and learning, (3) social and emotional factors in learning, (4) classroom management, and (5) assessment and evaluation.
Children’s thinking is built on their existing knowledge, experiences, and skills. Prior knowledge interacts with cognitive, motivational, and contextual factors that influence learning. Effective teaching entails providing varied learning opportunities, meaningful feedback, purposeful practice, scaffolding, and opportunities to apply skills across different contexts.
Children’s motivation is shaped by their beliefs about their abilities, the value they assign to tasks, and the extent to which their needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported. These factors influence engagement, persistence, and performance. Effective teaching strengthens motivation through encouraging mastery-focused goals, recognition of effort and progress, meaningful choices, engaging learning activities, and positive expectations.
Social and emotional experiences, with supportive relationships, emotional security, and a positive classroom climate, help children engage, explore, and develop cognitively and socially. Peer interactions, cooperative activities, and emotionally responsive teaching further strengthen problem-solving, communication, and social skills.
Effective classroom management provides clear routines, consistent expectations, and positive guidance that enable children to focus on learning and participate successfully in classroom activities. Strong teacher–child relationships and supportive, non-punitive approaches further promote cooperation and adherence to classroom norms.
Assessment supports teaching and learning by providing ongoing information about children’s progress. Contemporary approaches emphasise formative assessment, which informs instruction throughout the learning process. While summative assessment provides valuable information about learning outcomes, formative assessment in early childhood education should be continuous, fair, and developmentally appropriate, guiding instructional decisions and supporting each child’s development.
Introduction
Psychological and educational sciences play a vital role in improving teaching and learning in early childhood settings. Psychology offers insights into cognition, motivation, and social interaction, all of which are essential for understanding how children learn. It also informs educational practice by offering evidence-based guidance on effective instruction, supportive learning environments, and the responsible use of assessment and data.
The American Psychological Association’s Top 20 Principles from Psychology for Early Childhood Teaching and Learning(APA, 2015) provides research-based guidance on how children learn and how educational practices can be improved in early childhood settings. The report connects findings from psychological science with classroom practice to support the creation of effective learning environments for young children. The principles are organised into five broad areas:
children’s thinking and learning,
motivation and learning,
social and emotional factors in learning,
classroom management, and
assessment and evaluation.
Understanding and applying these principles can help teachers support children’s cognitive development, emotional well-being, and academic success.
Children do not enter learning environments as blank slates; rather, they bring with them a range of prior knowledge and experiences. This existing knowledge base, together with other learner resources, shapes how they interpret new information and acquire new skills. Prior knowledge affects learning in multifaceted ways rather than through a single, uniform mechanism. Prior knowledge interacts with children’s cognitive, motivational, and metacognitive processes, some of which facilitate learning, while others may hinder it (Schneider & Simonsmeier, 2025). These processes often overlap, operate simultaneously or sequentially, and interact with learner characteristics, instructional design features, and content domains.
Learning is also shaped by the contexts and environments in which it occurs (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Young children may acquire a concept or skill in one setting but struggle to apply it in another. For example, a child who learns counting during a classroom activity may not automatically use the same skill during play or everyday routines. Teachers can strengthen children’s ability to transfer knowledge by providing varied examples and opportunities to practise skills across different situations. Such approaches deepen understanding and promote broader application of learning.
A strong command of foundational skills creates the basis for further learning. As these skills develop, they support the deepening, expansion, and application of existing knowledge, as well as the acquisition of new competencies. Although new skills are often developed through persistent practice, their generalisation to new and varied contexts is less straightforward. For this reason, focusing exclusively on the rehearsal of isolated skills is rarely sufficient. More effective approaches combine the development of foundational competencies with opportunities to apply and adapt them in meaningful situations.
Practice and repetition are essential components of learning. Repetition strengthens memory and supports effective skill development. However, practice should be purposeful and engaging rather than limited to rote memorisation. Activities that incorporate games, exploration, and problem-solving provide opportunities for children to practise skills while maintaining interest and motivation (Lerkkanen et al., 2012a).
Teachers can support children’s learning by scaffolding their development within their zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). This concept refers to the gap between what a child can accomplish independently and what can be achieved with guidance from a teacher or more capable peers. It underscores the inherently social nature of learning and emphasises tasks that lie just beyond a child’s current level of competence and can be mastered through scaffolding that links new content to existing knowledge via interaction and dialogue (Muhonen et al., 2016), including in work with the youngest children (Salminen, Muhonen et al., 2021). When learning activities build on familiar ideas and experiences, children are better able to understand, integrate, and retain new concepts.
Feedback is another important component of the learning process. It can be directed at four levels—task, process, self-regulation, and person—and these levels differ in their effects on learning. Clear, timely, and constructive feedback helps children develop a more accurate understanding of their progress (Lerkkanen et al., 2016). It enables them to recognise strengths, identify areas for improvement, and adjust their learning accordingly. Effective feedback guides learners towards improvement rather than simply pointing out errors (Hamre et al., 2013). Importantly, feedback is only effective when children can use it to enhance their learning (Sadler, 1989).
Motivation and Learning
Motivation shapes how interested and engaged children are in learning activities. According to the expectancy–value model of achievement motivation, learners’ expectancies for success, self-concept of ability, and intrinsic task value—referring to the interest or enjoyment associated with a particular activity—form the foundation of motivation (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). These factors influence the choices children make, their persistence in learning, and their academic performance.
Research indicates that children’s beliefs about their abilities play an important role in shaping their learning behaviour (Lerkkanen, 2018). When children believe that their abilities can develop through effort and practice, they are more likely to embrace challenges and continue working even when tasks become difficult (Lerkkanen et al., 2012b). Teachers can foster such beliefs by praising effort, persistence, and progress rather than focusing solely on correct answers or perceived innate ability.
According to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), children’s intrinsic motivation to learn is strongest when teacher feedback supports their psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Intrinsic motivation arises when children participate in learning because they find the activity enjoyable, meaningful, or interesting. Young children are naturally curious and eager to explore their surroundings with others, making play and discovery particularly powerful contexts for learning. Teachers can support intrinsic motivation by designing learning experiences that are engaging, meaningful, and developmentally appropriate. Activities that provide opportunities for choice, inquiry, and independent exploration can enhance children’s engagement and persistence. When children are genuinely interested in what they are learning, they are more likely to remain focused and actively involved in the learning process.
Motivation can also be extrinsic, arising from external rewards, such as classroom incentives that are not directly tied to skill development (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Whereas intrinsic motivation engages children’s thoughts, beliefs about their abilities, and emotions during learning, extrinsic motivation often persists only as long as the rewards remain available. Nevertheless, well-designed extrinsic incentives can increase participation and support task initiation, particularly when combined with approaches that foster intrinsic interest and enjoyment.
Goal setting is another important factor influencing children’s motivation. When children have clear and attainable goals, they are better able to direct their attention and efforts towards learning tasks (Jõgi et al., 2015). Goals provide a sense of purpose and help children understand what they are working towards. Teachers can support this process by encouraging mastery-oriented goals that emphasise learning, understanding, and skill development rather than comparison with others. Such goals promote persistence and encourage children to value learning for its own sake.
Recent research continues to emphasise the importance of self-regulated learning as a key component of motivation. According to Hattie (2023), effective learning occurs when learners actively monitor their own progress, set personal goals, and reflect on their learning strategies. Self-regulated learners tend to be more motivated because they take ownership of their learning and develop a sense of control over their success. This aligns with the idea that motivation is influenced not only by teaching practices but also by learners’ ability to manage their own cognitive, behavioural, and emotional processes. Teachers can support the development of self-regulation by providing structured guidance, modelling thinking processes, and offering opportunities for reflection and feedback. Such practices help children become independent learners who are more resilient, engaged, and motivated to achieve their goals.
Teachers’ expectations also play a significant role in shaping children’s motivation and performance. Research indicates that when teachers hold positive beliefs about their students’ potential, learners are more likely to develop confidence and achieve stronger outcomes (Johnston et al., 2021). Positive expectations contribute to a classroom climate in which children feel encouraged to participate, take risks, and persevere in the face of challenges. Furthermore, high-quality teacher–child interactions characterised by warmth, sensitivity, proactive classroom organisation and cognitively stimulating exchanges have been associated with lower levels of task avoidance and helplessness among children. These findings suggest that supportive interactions can buffer against negative motivational experiences and promote sustained engagement in learning (Salminen et al., 2018).
Learning is not solely a cognitive process; it is also fundamentally social and emotional. Young children learn through their interactions with teachers, parents, and peers (Vygotsky, 1978). Positive teacher–child relationships (Alves et al., 2025) and high-quality interactions (Salminen, Guedes et al., 2021) are therefore central to early childhood education. When children feel respected, supported, and valued by their teachers, they are more likely to participate actively and engage in learning activities (Pakarinen et al., 2021). A supportive classroom climate encourages children to ask questions, share ideas, and explore new concepts without fear of failure (Muhonen et al., 2024). Such relationships foster children’s social development (Rahmawati et al., 2026), while teachers’ emotional support (Pakarinen et al., 2020) and cognitive and language support (Salminen et al., 2022) have also been associated with higher levels of social competence.
Emotional well-being plays a central role in learning. Children who feel safe and emotionally secure are better able to concentrate, solve problems, and retain new information, whereas stress, anxiety, or negative emotions can hinder learning (Jõgi et al., 2022). Teachers can promote emotional well-being by creating caring and inclusive learning environments in which children feel accepted and respected (Cadima et al., 2023).
Peer interactions are another essential component of learning. Through cooperative play and group activities, children develop communication, collaboration, and problem-solving skills. These experiences foster important social competencies, including empathy, cooperation, and conflict resolution (Muhonen et al., 2024). At the same time, collaborative learning activities and dialogic interactions support cognitive development by encouraging discussion, reasoning, and the exchange of ideas (Muhonen et al., 2018).
Effective classroom management creates an organised and supportive environment in which children can focus on learning. Young children benefit from clear structure, predictable routines, and explicit behavioural expectations (Pakarinen et al., 2024). When children understand classroom rules and daily procedures, they are more capable of participating in activities, following instructions and engaging in self-regulated learning (Calkins, 2007).
Teachers play a key role in establishing and maintaining such environments by communicating expectations clearly and modelling appropriate behaviour. Consistency is essential: when rules are applied fairly and reliably, children are more likely to understand and follow them. Positive feedback, including praise, encouragement, and acknowledgement of effort, helps motivate children to cooperate and engage actively in classroom activities (Lerkkanen et al., 2010).
Strong teacher–child relationships further support effective classroom management. When children feel respected, cared for, and understood by their teachers, they are more inclined to follow directions and adhere to classroom norms. Effective management strategies emphasise guidance, support, and skill development rather than punitive responses to challenging behaviour. Such approaches help children develop self-regulation and positive social behaviours while reducing the likelihood of aggression and other disruptive behaviours.
Assessment and Evaluation
Assessment helps teachers understand children’s learning and development and identify areas in which additional support may be needed (Kyttälä et al., 2024). In recent decades, the role of assessment has evolved from a primary focus on summative assessment of learning towards formative assessment for learning, emphasising the ongoing relationship between assessment and the learning process (Black & Wiliam, 2018).
Summative assessments are typically conducted at the end of a lesson, unit, or learning period to evaluate overall learning outcomes. Formative assessments, by contrast, occur throughout the learning process and generate information that can be used to adapt instruction and support children’s learning. In early childhood settings, formative assessment often involves observations, discussions, and everyday classroom activities that help teachers monitor children’s understanding and development. Although summative assessment provides valuable information about learning outcomes, formative assessment is particularly important because it enables teachers to respond to children’s needs while learning is still taking place.
The primary pedagogical function of assessment is to monitor and inform both teaching and learning, and to drive change when necessary. Effective assessment should be fair, reliable, and developmentally appropriate. Teachers must also interpret assessment results carefully to ensure that conclusions accurately reflect children’s abilities and progress. Ultimately, assessment should not merely measure learning outcomes but also guide instructional decision-making and support each child’s ongoing development.
Assessment and evaluation can also be directed towards pedagogical practice itself. In early childhood education and care (ECEC), it is important to provide staff with opportunities to evaluate their own pedagogical decisions and interactions with children. Enhancement-led evaluation (see, e.g., Vlasov et al., 2019) places practitioners’ experiences and perspectives at the centre of the evaluation process. It encourages educators to critically reflect on their role in supporting children’s learning and to examine how their pedagogical choices contribute to effective teaching. Through systematic reflection and evaluation, staff can strengthen their professional practice and continuously improve the quality of pedagogy within the learning environment Planning, documentation and evaluation.
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Social–Emotional Factors in Learning
Learning is not solely a cognitive process; it is also fundamentally social and emotional. Young children learn through their interactions with teachers, parents, and peers (Vygotsky, 1978). Positive teacher–child relationships (Alves et al., 2025) and high-quality interactions (Salminen, Guedes et al., 2021) are therefore central to early childhood education. When children feel respected, supported, and valued by their teachers, they are more likely to participate actively and engage in learning activities (Pakarinen et al., 2021). A supportive classroom climate encourages children to ask questions, share ideas, and explore new concepts without fear of failure (Muhonen et al., 2024). Such relationships foster children’s social development (Rahmawati et al., 2026), while teachers’ emotional support (Pakarinen et al., 2020) and cognitive and language support (Salminen et al., 2022) have also been associated with higher levels of social competence.
Emotional well-being plays a central role in learning. Children who feel safe and emotionally secure are better able to concentrate, solve problems, and retain new information, whereas stress, anxiety, or negative emotions can hinder learning (Jõgi et al., 2022). Teachers can promote emotional well-being by creating caring and inclusive learning environments in which children feel accepted and respected (Cadima et al., 2023).
Peer interactions are another essential component of learning. Through cooperative play and group activities, children develop communication, collaboration, and problem-solving skills. These experiences foster important social competencies, including empathy, cooperation, and conflict resolution (Muhonen et al., 2024). At the same time, collaborative learning activities and dialogic interactions support cognitive development by encouraging discussion, reasoning, and the exchange of ideas (Muhonen et al., 2018).
Research briefs
Teacher-child interaction quality and children’s self-regulation