Pedagogical interaction in ECEC

Pedagogy in ECEC

Concept of pedagogy

Pedagogy refers to the strategies, methods, and approaches used to support learning and interactions. This definition highlights its multifaceted nature, as it is not merely about teaching but encompasses a broader understanding of how children learn and develop. According to Cuenca (2010) and the Hatching Dragons Team (2024), effective pedagogy involves a variety of techniques that teachers employ to foster an environment conducive to learning. The Ontario Public Service (2014) expands on this concept by emphasizing that pedagogy is fundamentally about understanding how learning occurs.

This understanding informs both the philosophy and practice of teachers, guiding them in their interactions with children. It suggests that effective pedagogy requires a deep comprehension of developmental theories and learning processes that allows teachers to tailor their approaches to meet the diverse needs of their students. Moreover, pedagogy encompasses the ways in which teachers interact with children, create learning environments, and facilitate meaningful experiences. As noted by Cuenca (2010), the Hatching Dragons Team (2024), and Liberatore and Konstantinidi (2021), these interactions are crucial for engagement and cognitive development. Teachers must be intentional in their methods in using strategies that encourage exploration, critical thinking, and collaboration among children. In summary, pedagogy is a comprehensive framework that integrates various strategies and philosophies to enhance children’s learning experiences. It requires teachers to be reflective practitioners who continuously adapt their methods based on an evolving understanding of how children learn best.

Key principles of ECEC pedagogy

For the Hatching Dragons Team (2024), pedagogy in early childhood education is based on the understanding that children learn best through active exploration, play, and social interaction. In the same vein, the Ontario Public Service (2014) posits that learning happens in early-year settings that are shaped by views about children, the role of teachers and families, and relationships among them. Effective pedagogy in early childhood education considers the individual needs and interests of each child, as well as the cultural and social context in which they are learning. It recognizes the importance of building positive relationships with children and creating a supportive and inclusive learning environment (ELECT, 2007; Hatching Dragons Team, 2024).

What characterises good pedagogy in early childhood education?

There are several ways to define good pedagogy in early childhood education, but key principles can be identified (see e.g. Hatching Dragons Team, 2024; Sylva et al., 2015):

• Pedagogy in early childhood education is aware of the importance of child-centred learning. This means that learning experiences and activities are designed to meet the needs and interests of each individual child, allowing them to actively engage and take ownership of their learning. It also means striking a balance between adult guidance, support, and facilitation while both ensuring that experiences in all areas of development are offered and giving enough room for the child’s choices and interests (Sylva et al., 2015).
• Development must be holistic. Pedagogy in early childhood education takes into account all aspects of a child’s development, including their physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and creative development. It should provide a balanced and comprehensive learning experience that supports the growth of the whole child.
• Play is valued as a central component of learning. Play is a natural and meaningful way for children to explore, make sense of the world, and develop essential skills and knowledge. Teachers create play-based environments that promote open-ended exploration, problem-solving, imagination, and creativity.
• Collaborative learning, relationships, and social interaction are promoted. Good pedagogy recognizes the importance of peer interactions and cooperative learning in fostering children’s social skills, communication abilities, and empathy. Teachers facilitate opportunities for children to work together, engage in group activities, and learn from each other.
• Lastly, pedagogy in early childhood education emphasizes the role of planning and assessment in informing and guiding teaching practices Planning and evaluation. Teachers use various assessment methods to observe and document children’s progress, understanding, and strengths. This information is then used to tailor learning experiences, provide targeted support, and ensure continuous improvement.

Pedagogical approaches and theories in ECEC

The pedagogy of early childhood education has a strong foundation in research evidence and in valuing the child and childhood. This sets out certain starting points and guidelines. However, there are diverse approaches based on different theories, with slightly different emphases on elements of pedagogy. These approaches include Montessori, Reggio Emilia, Waldorf, and Fröbel pedagogy. For instance, in an extensive ECEC curriculum review, Sylva et al. (2015) concluded that in European ECEC, the leading principles of Montessori and Fröbel are most often present in curricula. More broadly speaking, ECEC centres that follow one particular pedagogical approach do exist globally, but generally the leading principles of different approaches are mixed and applied.

Montessori pedagogy

Montessori pedagogy emphasizes that early childhood education should adopt a child-centred approach to let children be active participants in their own development, strongly influenced by natural, dynamic, self-correcting forces within themselves. Montessori pedagogy thus stresses that each child develops according to an individual pace and possesses an innate desire to learn. Learning occurs most effectively when children are given freedom within carefully established limits, which allows them to make meaningful choices and engage in purposeful activities that correspond with their developmental needs and interests. Through hands-on experiences and opportunities for self-discovery, children build confidence, independence, concentration, and self-discipline, which contribute to holistic growth and a lifelong love of learning. This perspective is supported by Morrison (2024), who maintains that children are active learners who construct knowledge through direct interaction with people, materials, and their environment. Likewise, Bredekamp (2020) argues that developmentally appropriate practice promotes children’s autonomy and competence by providing opportunities for exploration, decision-making, and meaningful engagement in learning experiences that match their developmental stages and individual strengths.

In the view of Montessori, teachers in ECEC are nurturers, partners, and guides to the children (Marshall, 2017). The approach advocates carefully prepared, aesthetically pleasing environments as a pedagogical tool. Essential to this are high-quality learning materials, toys, and equipment that children can self-chosenly immerse themselves in (Marshall, 2017). Thus, the Montessori approach emphasizes independent learning and letting children grow into lifelong learners and responsible citizens of the world (Marshall, 2017).

The main principles of Montessori pedagogy:

• The environment and the child’s own curiosity drive development. Children learn naturally through exploration in a well-prepared environment that encourages discovery.
• The teacher becomes a guide, not a lecturer. The teacher carefully observes children’s interests, abilities, and developmental needs, offering support, encouragement, and guidance when necessary.
• “Help me to do it by myself.” This principle captures Montessori’s belief that children learn best when they are empowered to act independently, explore their environment, solve problems, and develop skills with the guidance and support of the teacher rather than in direct instruction.

Reggio Emilia pedagogy

The Reggio Emilia philosophy originated in Reggio Emilia, Italy, under the leadership of Loris Malaguzzi. It views children as competent, capable, and curious individuals who actively construct their own knowledge through interactions with others and their environment. Learning is child-centred and inquiry-based and emerges from children’s interests, questions, and experiences. Teachers act as co-learners and facilitators who carefully observe, document, and extend children’s thinking with meaningful projects and collaborative experiences. Morrison (2024) supports this perspective in emphasizing that young children are active participants in the learning process and learn best through hands-on experiences, investigation, and social interaction. Similarly, Gordon and Browne (2022) argue that effective early childhood programmes encourage curiosity, creativity, and problem-solving through play, collaboration, and responsive relationships. Bredekamp (2020) notes that developmentally appropriate practice values children’s strengths and interests, promotes active engagement, and builds learning experiences that are meaningful and relevant to children’s lives.

Reggio Emilia pedagogy focuses on artistic expression, project work, and the quality of the learning environment. Children’s learning, artistic expression, and handprints are made visible in project work, the process of which is actively documented and reflected on (Fernández-Satín & Feliu-Torruella, 2020; McNally & Slutsky, 2017). Outputs are made visible to families and also to the wider community, thus showing in Reggio Emilia an essential appreciation of community. In Reggio Emilia pedagogy, all this takes place in a learning environment where quality, aesthetics, and functionality are paramount (McNally & Slutsky, 2017). In fact, the learning environment is described as a third teacher, not just as a physical framework (Fernández-Satín & Feliu-Torruella, 2020).

The main principles of Reggio Emilia pedagogy:

• The child is competent and capable. Children are viewed as active constructors of knowledge who possess potential, curiosity, and the ability to express their ideas and theories about the world.
• The environment is the “third teacher.” Thoughtfully designed spaces, materials, and experiences encourage exploration, creativity, collaboration, and independent thinking.
• Learning is collaborative and emerges from children’s interests. Children learn through relationships, dialogue, project work, and shared inquiry, with teachers guiding and documenting the learning process rather than directing it.
• “Nothing without joy.” This principle reflects the Reggio Emilia belief that learning should be meaningful, engaging, and rooted in children’s natural curiosity, their relationships, and their delight in discovery.

Waldorf pedagogy

Waldorf pedagogy emphasizes the holistic nature of learning and development in line with Rudolf Steiner’s broader anthroposophical philosophy and theory (Steiner, 1919). While Steiner laid a foundation for the theory, Waldorf pedagogy can be its practical and educational implication. By focusing on intellectual, emotional, physical, and spiritual development, Waldorf pedagogy encourages experiential, artistic, and hands-on learning. The focus is on free play, the child’s relationship with nature, and socio-emotional development in a sensory-friendly environment (Taplin, 2024). Learning academic skills in early childhood education is thus seen as a secondary issue, and the goal is to build a solid foundation for the child’s future. That foundation is built on non-hurriedness, calming nature experiences, and trusting relationships between teachers, children, and their families (Taplin, 2024). This provides opportunities for creative and imaginative play where children are free to practise their skills and express themselves without adult guidance. Morrison (2024) similarly argues that high-quality early childhood programmes should nurture the whole child by addressing cognitive, social, emotional, physical, and creative dimensions of development rather than focusing solely on academic achievement. He further contends that meaningful learning occurs through play-based, developmentally appropriate experiences and warm, responsive relationships that support children’s sense of belonging, well-being, and lifelong enthusiasm for learning.

The Waldorf approach typically follows three developmental stages occurring in seven-year periods:

• Early Childhood (birth–7 years): Children learn through imitation, play, and sensory experiences, with activities focusing on imaginative play, artistic work, practical tasks, and outdoor exploration. These activities nurture social, emotional, and physical skills.
• Elementary School (7–14 years): In the elementary stage, learning is artistic and experiential and uses storytelling, drama, music, and visual arts. Lessons should be designed to focus on children’s feelings and creativity to maximize learning through personal experience instead of rote memorization.
• Secondary School (14–21 years): In this stage, the emphasis is on critical thinking, independent research, and practical skills. The aim is to encourage logical and ethical decision-making in preparation for adult life.

The main principles of Waldorf pedagogy:

• The child’s development and learning are seen in a particularly holistic way.
• At the heart of learning are socio-emotional skills rather than academic skills.
• A calm, unhurried, and natural environment that encourages free play is highly valued.

Fröbel pedagogy

Fröbel pedagogy is very much in line with Waldorf’s ideas, especially from the point of view of play, nature, and relationships in educational settings. Fröbel’s approach emphasizes functional learning, especially through play (Ildiz & Ahmetoglu, 2018). According to Fröbel, with active agency, the child learns numerous skills, such as social and self-expression skills. Learning takes place in playing, singing, moving, and doing with the hands such that the child gets to know the world and develop holistic thinking (Ildiz & Ahmetoglu, 2018). Gordon and Browne (2022) similarly argue that play is the natural medium through which young children learn, as it enables them to construct knowledge, express emotions, solve problems, and develop social relationships. They also maintain that early childhood educators should provide rich, stimulating environments and meaningful interactions that support children’s active engagement and foster development across all domains. In Fröbel’s approach, learning takes place in various environments, especially outdoors where children are able to concretely explore and feel the surrounding nature and its features (Ildiz & Ahmetoglu, 2018). Also considered valuable is the educational partnership in close cooperation between teachers and the child’s parents (Ildiz & Ahmetoglu, 2018).

The main principles of Fröbel pedagogy:

• At the core is the active agency of children, which excels in pedagogy that supports functional learning.
• The importance of nature is emphasized as a learning environment for experimentation.
• The role of parents is seen as valuable in supporting children’s learning.

Implementing pedagogy through supportive interactions in ECEC

Being in interaction with others fulfils one of the basic innate psychological needs of human beings, that is, belonging (Deci & Ryan, 1985), by connecting the child to the surrounding social network. Children learn through positive interactions with their families, peers, and early childhood practitioners (see Sylva et al., 2015). In ECEC, when teachers participate in ongoing activities and learn to observe children’s signals, they can transform the knowledge they gain into concrete pedagogical practices. These integrative and interactional practices create the quality of early childhood education pedagogy (Kangas et al., 2021; see also Planning and evaluation).

The well-known bioecological systems theory of Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2006) points to the centrality of interactions for child’s learning and development. Reciprocal and proximal interactions that children share with others in their daily environments shape, and are shaped by, the different levels of the systems surrounding the child, such as the home, ECEC centre, the neighbourhood, the community, and finally, the larger values and rules of society. In the model, the interactions that the child proximally experiences cannot be extracted from the broader cultural and ecological surroundings (see also Learning environments), and these aspects also shape interactions with professionals and peers in ECEC. From the pedagogical point of view, interactions with adults and with peers are also relevant catalysts for learning and therefore important avenues for implementing pedagogy. Pedagogy for young children should focus strongly on relationships and emphasize the centrality of interactional aspects.

Interactions between teacher and children

The general emphasis on the importance of interactions is closely linked to the way in which the roles of adults in ECEC settings are viewed and how they can best support the implementation of pedagogy. Therefore, interactions between the teacher and the children put the teacher’s effective, age-appropriate, and sensitive support for learning and development in the forefront. There are several models and frameworks that characterize what these interactions entail and what characterizes high-quality and child-centred interactions at the classroom level. In what follows, practical examples of what high-quality pedagogical interactions could look like in classrooms are provided. The examples and descriptions are based on existing research-based models and frameworks, such as Teaching Through Interactions (TTI, Hamre et al., 2013) and the Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure (ECCOM, Stipek & Byler, 2004). They are starting points to guide the reader in conceptualizing the characteristics of teacher–child interactions in ECEC. The leading idea is to focus on effective, high-quality interactions between the teacher and the children in their classroom and on what the teacher does—emphasizing support and pedagogy. Even if the focus is placed on what the teacher does, the reciprocity of interactions and the experiences of the children should not be discarded: Children, their perspectives, and their needs always walk hand in hand with what the teacher does.

Several frameworks suggest that supportive interactions are steered towards three main areas: the climate in the classroom, comprising teacher’s emotional attunement, child participation, and sensitivity to children’s needs; management of the classroom, comprising of ways to organize the classroom and discipline strategies to support behaviour management; and instruction, comprising how teachers facilitate learning and teaching and how they maintain instructional conversations.

Climate

A good classroom climate entails that the atmosphere is warm and cosy and inclusively invites everyone to join the group and feel safe. In practice, this can be observed in teachers being respectful of children, taking children to their lap, smiling, and otherwise sharing positive affect with them. Emotionally supportive teachers represent attachment figures to children (on attachment theory, see Ainsworth, 1969; Bowlby, 1969), and through the sense of security, they indicate to children that the space and people within it are safe for the child to independently explore their surroundings and, in turn, expose themselves to a variety of learning opportunities.

Teachers are also sensitive of children’s social, emotional and cognitive needs—no matter how big or small. For instance, a teacher sensitively approaches and soothes a crying baby or provides assistance to a child who needs it in completing a task. Teachers are also able to look into things from the perspective of the child by acknowledging their ways of seeing the world and showing respect for their perspectives and opinions.

The following example illustrates what a good climate in a classroom situation may look like.

During free play, a child becomes upset when their block tower falls. The teacher kneels beside them, gently says, “That was frustrating, wasn’t it?” She offers comfort and softly strokes the child’s hair. After the child calms down, she encourages them: “Would you like to try again? I can help you.”

Nearby, she smiles and chats with other children about their play, showing interest in their ideas. By responding warmly, listening to children’s feelings, and supporting them when needed, the teacher creates a safe and caring environment where children feel valued and confident to explore.

Management

Management comprises the ways in which teachers are able to anticipate children’s activities, show them consistent behavioural expectations, and redirect instructions to keep them engaged in activities. In such a classroom, activities are well-planned, and children know what is expected of them. This means that the activities are organized in such a way that children have the opportunity to participate in those that interest them and that are appropriate for them most of the time. To put it in other words, good classroom management is like setting the table for learning—it facilitates clear and predictable activities that are easy for the children to join. The organization of the group can be seen, among other ways, in how teachers divide the group into tasks, think in advance (and also together with the children) about the seating arrangement during gatherings, or make different transition situations smooth.

One pivotal characteristic of teacher support is the way through which teachers provide proactive reminders of expected behaviours, rather than reacting to misbehaviour that has already broken out. Constant and clear reminders and refocusing children’s attention are rooted in principles of self-regulated learning where children’s competences to direct their own behaviour and attention are encouraged. Teachers can also support children’s engagement with activities by interacting with them in an inspiring and lively manner (e.g. Pianta et al., 2008).

The following illustrates a teacher’s proactive classroom organization and behaviour management strategies:

During a morning assembly, the teacher organizes a big group of children into a large semicircle around her. She warmly greets everyone and says that each child is welcome to the classroom. She proactively reminds the children: “Remember, we stay still for a while, and have our listening ears on.” She then gives the children a brief assignment. When one child begins to fidget and talk to a neighbour, the teacher gently moves closer, makes eye contact, and redirects: “Let’s bring our listening ears back so we can hear what happens next!” After instruction, she tells the children to stand and asks all those who know what to do to take one step and smoothly transitions them to start working with the next assignment. She then attends to those who did not know how to move on and sees that their needs and questions are adequately met and supports their engagement in the planned activity.

Instruction

From the instructional perspective, in interactions teachers cognitively and linguistically support the children. They therefore follow the theoretical underpinnings of Vygotsky’s seminal work (1978) on the role of language and communication for learning. Teacher interaction uses children’s prior knowledge and experiences to build new understanding. It also shows how teachers can combine content to create meaningful connections with the children. It further entails the ways in which the teacher stimulates children’s thinking skills, for example through engaging them in problem-solving and making predictions. In the classroom, this could mean engaging children in discussion during book reading about what the main character could do and why or engaging them in discussion about whether specific objects would be more likely to sink or float. Teachers often discuss things with children, asking open-ended questions and inviting children to take part and elaborate on their perspectives. Rich spoken language with a broad vocabulary provides a fruitful environment for skill development but also enables verbalizing actions, desires, and gestures to increase the transparency of communication. For instance, a teacher working with toddlers may “speak out” children’s gestures to aid in their better recognizing the intentions of others and thereby support their constructive interactions with peers as well.

The following example illustrates what teacher’s support in the instructional aspect could look like in the ECEC classroom:

In a preschool classroom, children are working with shape puzzles and wooden blocks on a mat.

The teacher holds up a triangular piece:

“Where do you think this will fit?”

A child tries the wrong space, shaped like a square.

Teacher: “What do you notice? Why doesn’t it fit?”

Child: “It’s too big.”

Teacher: “It is too big, but what else could be the problem? Do the piece and the space look alike? What could you try next?”

The child turns to another space, yet struggling with the shape. He turns the piece and tries again.

The teacher models language:

“You found the spot and you also rotated the triangle. Now it matches the shape.”

The teacher picks up a square piece and asks: “Who has seen shapes like these at home?”

Child: “The window is a square.”

Teacher–child interactions matter in implementing daily pedagogy. It is important that teachers in ECEC be aware of all the characteristics depicted above because they are needed—for different reasons—daily with the children. Studies have shown that teachers’ instructional and managerial interactions are beneficial both for soft skills (e.g. social competence) and for academic skills among children of different ages (e.g. Cadima et al., 2010; Salminen et al., 2022; 2026; Siekkinen et al., 2013), while emotional support has been most strongly associated with benefits in socio-emotional skills and favourable behavioural outcomes (e.g. Zheng et al., 2023).

Interactions between peers

From early on, children are directed to interact with other children in their social environment. Even a small baby readily focuses their attention on other children, such as siblings, and it is often the expressions, gestures, and touch of another child that bring a smile to the baby’s face. A child’s orientation towards other children and their company grows even stronger as they develop, and children readily seek the closeness of other children. This reflects the human child’s deep need for closeness and connection, which is one of the most innate psychological needs: Interaction anchors the child to the social reality surrounding them (e.g. Deci & Ryan, 1985). The sense of belonging and inclusion generated by connection with other children supports a young child’s holistic well-being and gives meaning to their existence and experiences. The need for connection is clearly visible, for example, when a new toddler joins a daycare group. At first, the child may observe the other children’s activities from a distance, but as soon as the environment feels safe enough, they will join in (Hännikäinen & Munter, 2018).

Peer interactions and learning

In ECEC, interactions between peers are an important source of feeling togetherness and belonging, and therefore they in themselves facilitate meaningful experiences (see Kangas et al., 2021). At the same time, peer interactions are meaningful for learning and development. The importance of children’s interactions with their peers for learning receives theoretical support from Vygotsky’s seminal work (1978), which emphasizes that children learn through interaction with others in their social world, and only through interaction does learning become internalized. Particularly relevant is the notion of learning from more capable peers in the zone of proximal development (ZPD; Vygotsky, 1978). The ZPD refers to an area of competence that a child can master with the support of an adult or a more skilled child but not yet independently (Vygotsky, 1987; see also Koivula & Hännikäinen, 2022).

For example, in play situations, a more capable child can show another how to dress a doll or maybe assist with complicated parts, such as sleeves. Gradually, the child learns to dress the doll independently. In the ZPD, both parties engage in communication and benefit from the situation: In the example, the adviser learns to guide and explain, and the other player learns to internalize the information received. This is how interaction becomes a shared phenomenon that intertwines with the individuals participating in it: Even though the children are peers, their individual experiences and skills create subtle variations and thus opportunities for the ZPD to open up.

Characteristics of peer interactions

Much in line with the frameworks concerning the characteristics of teacher–child interactions, interactions with peers can be characterized underneath the same broader umbrella of interactions in the ECEC classroom. Developmentally, children’s constructive interactions with their peers play a unique role in learning, alongside teacher–child interactions, and contribute to various favourable outcomes (Gifford-Smith & Brownell, 2003; Tenenbaum et al., 2019). Especially the way in which a child functions with peers has been identified as a key indicator of later social success and adjustment to school.

In ECEC classrooms, high-quality and well-functioning peer interactions can be identified from how children work together. The ways in which children present themselves amongst peers can be observed in daily situations, for instance in how sociable children are with their peers, how they communicate with peers, and whether the child is assertive in their interactions with peers or if the interactions lack conflictual characteristics (Downer et al., 2010):

Peer sociability means that children are observed seeking to engage with other children, expressing positive emotions and constructively inviting others to interact with them, thus exhibiting social awareness.

• In practice, children might be observed engaging in activities with other children in a positive manner and mutually cooperating with other children.

Peer assertiveness refers to how successful children are in their initiations of peer interactions and how effectively they lead play situations and communicate in maintaining the interactions.

• In practice, children might be observed successfully contacting other children and constructing and maintaining play situations. Some children might also accept leadership roles in play or other activities and run these in a constructive manner.

Peer communication entails the child’s use of language in peer interaction situations to accomplish varying goals and using language and communication for social and practical purposes.

• In practice, peer communication can be seen in dynamic communication situations where children respond to each other, join discussions with peers, and take turns in communication.

Peer conflict refers to disrespect, aggression, or attention-seeking behaviours. Typically, such behaviours challenge collaboration and hinder mutual enjoyment and engagement in peer interactions.

• In practice, well-functioning peer interactions lack aggression, uncooperative behaviours, negative facial expressions, and behaviours that can be considered expressions of negative attention-seeking (e.g. complaining or intrusiveness).

Teachers support interactions between peers

As with teacher–child interaction, the teacher’s role as in children’s peer relations is an essential part of pedagogy. According to Kangas and colleagues (2021), through supporting interaction between peers, teachers can increase the sense of togetherness, reduce disruptive behaviour and bullying, and support shared meaning-making processes and relations. Teachers have many strategies to support children’s peer interactions in many practical ways. Supporting peer interactions is closely tied to the overall atmosphere in the classroom and the ways in which teacher–child interactions are displayed. A positive, emotionally secure classroom climate and teacher support create a safe and secure base for healthy peer interactions to flourish as well.

In their study, Salminen et al. (2014) identified mechanisms that ECEC teachers used to enhance peer interaction and more broadly social life in their classrooms.

• Managing children’s peer interactions: The teacher provides support for learning socially appropriate behaviour within peer relationships by modelling acceptable behaviour, by sensitively scaffolding children’s activities, or by directly encouraging children to cooperate, e.g. in dyadic situations.
• Promoting the coherence of the group: The teacher aims to keep the group coherent and functioning by establishing and enhancing common social rules, the principle of fairness, and the common ‘feeling of us’ existing in the group.
• Promoting each child as part of the group: The teacher sees the value of individuals in the group and devotes time to promoting individual children during groupwork. These practices are likely to lead to better knowing peers and increasing shared acceptance.
• Explicitly discussing friendship and respectfulness: The teacher deals with explicit topics related to promoting interaction between peers, such a friendship, respect, or empathy, and uses them as clear themes in structured learning sessions or as part of explicit instruction.

Supporting peer relations in ECEC is pivotal because meeting the demands of working as competent and socially skilled individuals, who understand the basics of social interaction and possess the constructive abilities necessary to work in different groups, are needed in children’s current and subsequent educational contexts—but also while moving about in the larger society and communities. This is why supporting peer interactions in ECEC is an aspect that teachers may want to emphasize.

To conclude, interactions between teachers and children, as well as those between peers, are essential to implementing high-quality pedagogy in ECEC. Teachers can do a lot by ensuring and safeguarding high-quality interactions with the children in their classroom, but equal attention should be devoted to facilitating peer interactions. Constructive and positive interactions at both levels create a fruitful starting point for child exploration, learning, and above all well-being.

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